DIKW Pyramid

Data, information, knowledge, and wisdom (DIKW) are four elements laid out in a pyramid (starting with data on the bottom and working up to wisdom) known as the DIKW pyramid. The thinking behind the theory postulates that data in and of itself is useless. One needs context to understand how the data fit together. Once data is organized and put into context, it becomes useful information and can reveal something valuable. When the information is analyzed, knowledge is developed. With knowledge, one can learn and understand how to best use the information. When experience is added to knowledge, one gains wisdom. The DIKW pyramid can be applied to a number of fields but is most prominent in nursing, management, and information science.

Brief History

While the DIKW pyramid was established in the 1970s and 1980s, elements of it have been around for much longer. In the 1934 poem "The Rock," T. S. Eliot provides insight into the relationship between information, understanding, and wisdom, showing the search and desire for knowledge has long existed.

In 1974, Nicholas L. Henry was the first to determine that data, information, and knowledge build upon one another. Both Russell L. Ackoff and Milan Zeleny are credited with establishing the elements into pyramid form.

Ackoff explained what each element in the pyramid means and its relationship with the elements above and below it. According to Ackoff, understanding and context grow as one moves up the chart. Knowledge is gained from collecting masses of information, and understanding is based on knowledge and the ability to reason.

Some have questioned the usefulness of the DIKW pyramid. Martin Frické, a leading critic of the DIKW pyramid, published an article in the Journal of Information Science entitled “The Knowledge Pyramid: A Critique of the DIKW Hierarchy,” pointing out an error in logic regarding the DIKW pyramid. Frické suggested the field of information science should abandon the model.

Frické argued against a number of the assumptions made in the hierarchy, specifically that the elements are clearly related to each other and occur as they do in the pyramid. Data can be gained by gathering information, not just observation. Data, according to Frické, does not always have to be processed to be information but can simply be inferred. Frické notes that few use or refer to wisdom even though it is on the pyramid. Furthermore, the pyramid's goal was to deal with and create certainty, and inductive reasoning is not considered because Ackoff and Milan Zeleny relied on operationalism and inductivism philosophies in developing the theory. These issues and others, according to Frické, make the DIKW pyramid invalid.

Others have also questioned the pyramid due to the unclear distinctions between levels. Some agree with Frické and say that the pyramid gives short shift to data assuming that knowledge and wisdom can be built on basic low-level data. To get the most out of data, one needs to know the context of the story from which it was gleaned. The story behind the data influences the information. David Weinberger says warning signs about the DIKW pyramid should have been raised when it was accepted on a wide scale basis so quickly. He believes the greatest issue with the DIKW pyramid is its shape—gaining knowledge and wisdom cannot be simply labeled. He says knowledge and wisdom are gained differently by each individual.

Impact

Despite Frické's call for eliminating the DIKW pyramid and others' questioning of it, the pyramid continues to be referred to and used in various fields and industries. The DIKW pyramid has been used in healthcare to assess patient data and make important treatment decisions. The finance and marketing industries use the DIKW pyramid to analyze markets and make investment decisions based on consumer behaviors and market trends. Organizations’ research and development teams can use the pyramid to interpret data and generate new plans. The pyramid can guide operation planning and threat analysis in military strategy and intelligence. Using information gleaned from the data, authorities gain knowledge to properly assess threats, and wisdom leads to the development of countermeasures.

The nursing informatics field—the integration of nursing with information technology and data management to encourage health—adapted the DIKW pyramid to help provide the best patient care possible. The pyramid is particularly useful in teaching nursing students the appropriate actions to take to progress from basic patient data to informed clinical decisions and complex problem-solving. The definition of the wisdom aspect of the pyramid has been debated within the field of nursing. A clearer understanding of wisdom would enable nurses to teach colleagues new to the field to be better practitioners.

The DIKW pyramid has also been applied in businesses and organizations to understand customer buying habits, preferences and concerns, and interest in current and future products. Ultimately, companies use the information gleaned from data to find ways to satisfy their customers and improve their bottom lines. Wisdom helps businesses avoid missteps and reach their customers in the best way they can.

The DIKW pyramid’s limitations are widely recognized, but despite the DIKW pyramid's limitations, it has practical applications. To use the DIKW pyramid in a practical way, practitioners should approach each stage with flexibility. The parameters of each stage are open to interpretation. The meaning may change from industry to industry and from person to person. To make the DIKW pyramid more accessible, metaphorical understandings have been established to clarify each stage. However, the process of gathering, interpreting, understanding, and applying data is not linear, and adhering to the stage progression outlined in the pyramid is not practical.

Bibliography

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