Photocopying invented
Photocopying revolutionized the way documents were replicated, moving away from tedious methods like carbon copies and mimeographs that required special materials and significant effort. The invention of the photocopier, particularly highlighted by the success of the Xerox 914, made copying simple, efficient, and accessible to a wide range of users, including businesses and educational institutions. Developed by the Haloid Company, this copier utilized a selenium-coated drum and electrical charges to produce sharp, permanent copies on plain paper at low costs. Its rapid acceptance in the 1960s transformed office practices, leading to an increase in communication and documentation. This innovation not only facilitated business operations but also empowered social movements by enabling the distribution of flyers and manifestos. The rise of photocopying coincided with the development of copyright laws, prompting discussions around intellectual property rights in relation to copying for educational and research purposes. Over the decades, the technology grew to include color copiers and fax machines, evolving into functions that are integral to modern computing. The impact of photocopying is significant, marking a shift in how information is shared and consumed in society.
Subject Terms
Photocopying invented
A process that produces one or multiple copies of any document. The first office machine to make good, permanent copies on ordinary paper, the Xerox 914, was introduced in 1960 and rapidly transformed business and scholarly practices.
Origins and History
Before xerography, making copies was tedious and chancy. Carbon copies, hectographs, and mimeographs, the methods used in the mid-twentieth century, required special care and materials. Expensive photostats were needed to copy a preexisting document. Scholars took copious notes from research materials by hand. In the 1950’s, an office copier, the Thermo-Fax, was introduced, which used rolled, heavy paper and made dark, fading copies.
Meanwhile, the Haloid Company of Rochester, New York, was working on a copier based on a selenium-coated drum, which used opposing electrical charges to create a duplicate image. Building a new machine from this principle was a daunting task for a small company. At one point Joseph Wilson, Haloid’s president, offered International Business Machines (IBM) the chance to develop it jointly. IBM, convinced five thousand copiers was the market ceiling, turned him down.
However, the Xerox 914 was an immediate success. At first, the company could make only five copiers a day, and orders almost exceeded their capacity. Haloid’s 1959 revenues of 32 million dollars exploded to more than 500 million dollars by 1966. The machine produced permanent, sharp images of an original. Using plain, white paper kept per-copy costs low, and making copies was so simple a child could do it. (One early television commercial showed a little girl making copies for her businessman father.) As its capacities became known, almost every business, library, and office wanted a “Xerox machine.” The company developed new models that improved on the desk-sized 914 and became the Xerox Corporation, one of the great business success stories of the 1960’s.
By the decade’s end, the office copier was firmly established in American worklife and lore. Among twentieth century inventions, its rapid adoption was matched only by that of television a few years earlier.
Impact
The copier expanded communication. Businesses kept more records, sent more notices and bills, and sometimes disseminated data more quickly and widely. This contributed to the “information explosion” and, coincidentally, created the modern office memo.
Journalists, whistleblowers, and protesters copied documents that revealed the secrets of the “establishment,” such as universities’ informal racial quotas. Copied flyers and manifestos helped movements emerge and develop, and amateur production of small-press publications became practical.
Professors provided their students with relevant copied articles. This spurred the teaching of current controversies and up-to-date scientific discoveries but raised copyright issues because permission was seldom sought from the copyright holders.
Subsequent Events
Photocopying influenced the Copyright Act of 1976, which permitted individuals to copy a work once for study or research. Successful lawsuits were brought against copy shops that mass-copied protected material for profit.
Xerox’s patents expired in 1972, allowing other companies to market similar copiers. The technology expanded to create color copiers, fax machines, and ultimately, computer functions such as scanners.
Additional Information
David Owen’s “Copies in Seconds,” in The Atlantic Monthly 257 (February, 1986), is the most accessible account of the development of the photocopier.