Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests
Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests are a unique biome located in the Asian part of Turkey, known as Anatolia. This region features a diverse range of forest types influenced by variable elevations and climatic conditions. The forests are characterized by a mix of deciduous trees, such as oaks and beeches, and coniferous species like pines and spruces, with their composition varying significantly across different climatic zones—from the humid north to the semi-arid inner and southeastern regions. Human activity, including deforestation for agriculture, construction, and fuel, has dramatically reduced the extent of these forests, leading to ecological disruptions and a transition toward steppe ecosystems in many areas.
The northern Anatolian forests are rich in species like the Nordmann fir and Oriental spruce, while southern Anatolia exhibits Mediterranean characteristics with dominant trees like the Turkish pine. Despite their ecological importance, these forests face threats from land use practices and climate change, necessitating conservation efforts. The World Wildlife Fund highlights that 25 animal species of conservation concern inhabit these forests, underscoring their ecological significance. Various protected areas have been established to help preserve this fragile ecosystem, reflecting an increasing awareness of the need for sustainable management and conservation of these vital habitats.
Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests
- Category: Forest Biomes.
- Geographic Location: Asia Minor.
- Summary: Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests are differentiated across elevations; much of this once-diverse habitat has been heavily affected by human use.
The Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests that once comprised a wealth of temperate zone oak- and pine-dominated mountain landscapes have been stressed and broken up by centuries of human activity. Anatolia, or the Asian portion of Turkey, is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean to the south, and the Aegean to the west. Its land borders touch the nations of Georgia, Armenia, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. The northern Anatolian Mountains are a key formation affecting local climate and habitat; another is the presence of isolated volcanic cones greater than 9,800 feet (more than 3,000 meters) in elevation in central and eastern Anatolia.
Anatolia is often broken into three climatic regions with associated forest types: northern Anatolia; southern Anatolia; and inner, eastern, and southeastern Anatolia. The north has a humid and cold–humid climate, with precipitation abundant throughout the year but at a minimum in early summer. The western and southwestern tracts have a Mediterranean climate with little rain in spring and winters tending to be wet. The inner, eastern, and southeastern sections share a semi-arid climate with most of the limited precipitation coming in late spring.
Due to the variable landscapes of Anatolia, various soil types occur, with those in the mountainous areas most distinctly favoring the growth of both deciduous and coniferous forests. Across much of the region, vegetation has been severely affected by human activity; the extent of forests today is less than in the past due to the destruction of trees for fuel, construction, conversion to agriculture, and gradual resultant conversion to steppe ecosystems in much of the region. Perhaps due to this trend, less research has been produced on Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests than on the better-sustained temperate forests in other, climate-similar bands of Europe and Asia. The World Wildlife Fund lists 25 animal species of conservation concern dwelling in the Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forest ecoregion.
Northern Anatolia
The region to the northwest along the Black Sea is highly populated by people now, but the scattered occurrence of trees such as the oaks Quercus ilex (holly oak) and Quercus suber (cork oak) suggest that this zone may once have been an evergreen mixed forest. Today, forests of beech trees featuring Fagus orientalis (Oriental beech) are common. Also, Alnus glutinosa (common alder), Prunus (cherry) species, and Carpinus betulus (hornbeam) form forested canopies, with Rhododendron often occupying the understory. The temperature along the coast varies from 50 to 57 degrees F (10 to 14 degrees C). Inland, at elevations of 328 to 6,562 feet (100 to 2,000 meters), temperatures are colder, varying from 43 to 50 degrees F (6 to 10 degrees C).
The forests in northeastern Anatolia, bordered by Georgia and the Black Sea, are profoundly influenced by the high mountains. These temperate coniferous forests and mixed deciduous forests consist of common alder, Oriental beech, Castanea sativa (sweet chestnut), Abies nordmanniana (Nordmann fir, one of the tallest trees in Europe at 256 feet or 78 meters), Pinus sylvestris (Scotch pine), and Picea orientalis (Oriental spruce). The composition of these forests varies with elevation and the associated temperatures and precipitation. The broadleaf species Quercus petrea subspecies iberica (sessile oak), sweet chestnut, maples, and Oriental beech occur from 1,640 to 3,940 feet (500 to 1,200 meters). At elevations of 3,940 to 4,920 feet (1,200 to 1,500 meters), Oriental spruce becomes dominant. These forests are defined by markedly high rainfall, averaging 59 to 98 inches (1,500 to 2,500 millimeters) annually.
Southern Anatolia
South Anatolia contains the Mediterranean phytogeographical region. Here, mean annual temperatures are warmer, averaging 57 to 66 degrees F (14 to 19 degrees C) north to south. The mean January temperature is 41 to 50 degrees F (5 to 10 degrees C), and the mean July temperature exceeds 68 degrees F (20 degrees C). Annually, 16 to 98 inches (400 to 2,500 millimeters) of precipitation occurs here, mostly during the winter months. With a gain in elevation, precipitation increases, and temperature decreases.
Pinus brutia (Turkish pine) dominates the forests from sea level up to 1,312 feet (400 meters) in the north and 765 to 875 feet (700 to 800 meters) in the south, due to its tolerance of drought and fire. These trees are extremely tall, potentially reaching more than 328 feet (100 meters) on the south-facing slopes of the Taurus Mountains. Mixed forests of Pinus nigra (black pine), Cedrus libani (cedar of Lebanon), and Juniperus excels (Greek juniper) occur from 2,620 to 6,560 feet (800 to 2,000 meters). Oak forests of Quercus libani (Lebanon oak), Quercus frainetto (Hungarian or Italian oak), Quercus cerris (Turkey oak), and Quercus pubescens (pubescent oak) occur at 2,620 to 3,940 feet (800 to 1,200 meters) in the eastern parts of the Taurus Mountains.
Inner, Eastern, and Southeastern Anatolia
Inner and eastern Anatolia are semi-arid, with cold, somewhat snowy winters and hot, dry summers. Lower elevations and valleys of the inner and eastern Anatolian region receive too little precipitation to support forest ecosystems. Higher elevations receive a bit more precipitation, at 20 to 24 inches (500 to 600 millimeters), which is enough to support trees that are tolerant of dry conditions. By comparison, most temperate forests globally receive 31 to 47 inches (800 to 1,200 millimeters) of precipitation per year. The dry forests of inner and eastern Anatolia are characterized by oak-dominated forests on dry to xeric sites—largely Quercus pubescens (pubescent oak) and Quercus infectoria (gall oak).
As precipitation increases at higher elevations of more than 3,940 feet (1,200 meters), oak trees co-occur with Pinus nigra subspecies pallasiana (black pine) and juniper species. Higher-elevation sites with more precipitation are dominated by black pine. As soils become more degraded or drier, or where black pine has been removed, mixed forests of pine, oak, and juniper grow. These forest types have been heavily affected by human land use, including deforestation, and have largely been destroyed at higher elevations and on north-facing slopes. Such areas tend to transition from forest to steppe ecosystems dominated by grasses and shrubs.
Less-dry areas in the middle and western mountains of eastern Anatolia are some of the most productive oak forests in present-day Turkey. Where these oak forests still occur, they are dominated by oak species adapted to moist soil conditions. These species include Q. brantii (Brant's oak), Q. libani (Lebanon oak), Q. robur subspecies pendunculiflora (Pedunculate oak), and sessile oak. Many, if not most, of these forest stands have been consumed by humans for wood fuel and oak-leaf feed for goats.
The southeastern Anatolian region contains the hottest and driest regions in Turkey. Trees in these places are similar to those of the dry forests of inner and eastern Anatolia, dominated or codominated by dry-adapted oak and pine species. The annual temperature is 63 to 64 degrees F (17 to 18 degrees C), with rainfall slightly over 20 inches (500 millimeters). This region has two dominant forest types: Turkey oak and Quercus (oak) species. The pine forest generally occurs at drier, lower altitudes, and the oaks appear in the upper subhumid elevations.
Human Impact
Managing the remaining forest is necessary to ensure the survival of this forest. Timber harvesting remains a constant threat. Improper land use and continual tree removal have created unstable conditions resulting in frequent landslides and floods. Turkey's Ministry of Forestry and Water has created several projects to address landslide control.
An uptick in ecotourism has stimulated local economies while simultaneously threatening local wildlife. Disturbances to wildlife and habitats are a cause for concern with the increased human presence, especially for species sensitive to human presence, such as the cinereous vulture.
Steps have been taken by local governments to protect the forest, with several protected areas created within the ecoregion. Manyas Bird National Park, Iludag National Park, Kazdagi National Park, and Dandindere Nature Reserve all help to preserve the land.
Bibliography
“A New Breath for the Future: Turkiye’s Forestation Drive Returns.” Daily Sabah, 11 Nov. 2022, www.dailysabah.com/turkey/a-new-breath-for-the-future-turkiyes-forestation-drive-returns/news. Accessed 11 Nov. 2024.
Archibold, O. W. Ecology of World Vegetation. London: Chapman & Hall, 1995.
Atalay, I. and R. Efe. “Structural and Distributional Evaluation of Forest Ecosystems in Turkey.” Journal of Environmental Biology 31, no. 61 (2010).
Mitchell, W. A., and A. Irmak. “Turkish Forest Soils.” Journal of Soil Science 8, no. 184 (1957).
“Northern Anatolian Conifer and Deciduous Forests.” One Earth, www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/northern-anatolian-conifer-and-deciduous-forests/#:~:text=Remaining%20areas%20of%20pristine%20forest,regulated%20by%20strict%20legal%20enforcement. Accessed 11 Nov. 2024.