Ajax by Sophocles
"Ajax," a tragedy by the ancient Greek playwright Sophocles, explores themes of pride, madness, and the consequences of divine influence. Set during the Trojan War, the play tells the story of Ajax, a formidable warrior who feels wronged when Odysseus is chosen over him to succeed Achilles as the Greek leader. In a state of humiliation, Ajax is manipulated by the goddess Athena into believing that he is avenging himself on his rivals, leading him to commit heinous acts against livestock, mistaking them for the Greek leaders he despises.
As the narrative unfolds, Ajax realizes the gravity of his actions, grappling with shame and contemplating suicide. His inner turmoil is exacerbated by the urging of his loved ones, including Tecmessa, his captive wife, and their young son, Eurysaces. The play culminates in Ajax's tragic decision to take his own life, reflecting on his legacy and the sorrow of his loved ones. Following his death, a conflict arises over the proper burial for Ajax, showcasing the complexities of honor and respect in Greek society. Ultimately, the play serves as a poignant exploration of the struggles between personal honor, divine will, and the fragility of human pride.
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Ajax by Sophocles
First transcribed:Aias, c. 440 b.c.e. (English translation, 1729)
Type of work: Drama
Type of plot: Tragedy
Time of plot: Trojan War
Locale: Phrygia
Principal characters
Ajax , a Greek warriorOdysseus , a Greek leaderTecmessa , Ajax’s female captiveTeucer , Ajax’s half brotherEurysaces , son of Ajax and Tecmessa
The Story:
Odysseus, chosen by Greek leaders in the Trojan War to replace the dead Achilles as the chief warrior of the Greek forces, paces up and down before the tent of Ajax, who was slighted by the selection of Odysseus. The goddess Athena, appearing above the tent, tells Odysseus that Ajax, covered with blood, is in his tent. Her words confirm Odysseus’s suspicions that it is indeed Ajax who slaughtered all of the Greeks’ livestock and their shepherd dogs. Athena explains that she cast a spell over Ajax, who, in his hurt pride, vowed to murder Menelaus and Agamemnon, the Greek commanders, as well as Odysseus. Under her spell Ajax committed the horrible slaughter in the belief that the animals he slew were the hated leaders who opposed his election to the place of the late Achilles.
When Tecmessa, Ajax’s Phrygian captive, reveals to his followers what the great warrior did, they lament his downfall and question the dark purposes of the gods. Certain that Ajax will be condemned to die for his transgressions, his warriors prepare to retire to their ships and return to Salamis, their homeland.
Ajax, recovered from the spell, emerges from his tent and clearly reveals to his friends that he is a shamed and broken man. Sick in mind at the thought of the taunts of Odysseus, he wishes only to die. Even in his abject misery, however, he is sure that had Achilles personally chosen his successor he would have named Ajax. The despairing man tries to find some means of escape from the consequences of his deed. The alternative to death is to return to Salamis and his noble father, Telamon, but he knows that he can never shame Telamon by facing him. His friends, alarmed at his deep gloom and sensing tragedy, advise him to reflect; Tecmessa urges him to live for her sake and for the sake of their little son, Eurysaces. At the mention of the name of his beloved son, Ajax calls for the boy. Solemnly he gives Eurysaces his great shield and directs that the child be taken to Salamis, so that he might grow up to avenge his father’s disgrace. After dismissing Tecmessa and his son, he remains in his tent alone to clear his troubled thoughts. His followers, meanwhile, resume their lament over their disgraced leader.
Apparently reconciled to his fate, Ajax emerges at last from his tent and declares that he is ready to recognize authority, to revere the gods, and to bury his sword with which he brought disgrace and dishonor upon himself. His decision, he says, was dictated by his affection for Tecmessa and Eurysaces. This apparent change brings forth cheers of rejoicing from his countrymen; they thank the gods for what appears to be Ajax’s salvation.
In the meantime, the Greeks taunt Teucer, Ajax’s half brother, for his kinship with one demented. Calchas, the Greek prophet, warns Teucer that unless Ajax is kept in his tent a full day, no one will again see Ajax alive, since the proud warrior twice offended the goddess Athena in the past. Ajax, however, already left his tent in order to bury his sword. Teucer and the men of Salamis, in alarm, hasten in search of their leader.
Ajax plants his sword, a gift from Hector, the great Trojan warrior, hilt down in the earth. After he asks the gods to inform Teucer of his whereabouts so that he might receive a proper burial, he falls upon his sword. Heavy underbrush partly conceals his body where it lies.
Tecmessa is the first to discover her dead lord; in sorrow she covers him with her mantle. Teucer is summoned. Tecmessa and the men of Salamis cannot refrain from mentioning the dire part played by Athena in the tragedy of Ajax and the pleasure Menelaus and Agamemnon will feel when they hear of Ajax’s death. Fearing foul play, Teucer orders Tecmessa to bring Eurysaces immediately. Teucer is in a dilemma. He knows that the Greeks detest him because of his kinship with Ajax. He fears also that Telamon will suspect him of being responsible for Ajax’s death, so that he might be Telamon’s heir.
While Teucer ponders his own fate, Menelaus appears and tells him that Ajax cannot receive proper burial because he was a rebel, offensive to the gods. Teucer maintains that Ajax was not subject to Spartan Menelaus, nor to anyone else, for he came to Troy voluntarily at the head of his own men from Salamis; therefore he deserves burial. Seeing that Teucer holds firm, Menelaus goes away. Teucer digs a grave while Tecmessa and Eurysaces stand vigil over the body. The men of Salamis sing a dirge over their dead leader.
Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, appears and rebukes Teucer, the son of a slave, for his audacity in defying the will of Menelaus. Agamemnon insults the memory of Ajax by saying that he was stronger than he was wise. Teucer, bitterly recalling Ajax’s many heroic deeds in behalf of the Greek cause, reminds Agamemnon of the many blots on the escutcheon of the Atridae, Agamemnon’s royal house. Teucer defends his own blood by pointing out that although his mother, Hesione, was a captive, she was nevertheless of noble birth.
Odysseus resolves the dispute by declaring that no Greek warrior should be denied burial. He himself hates Ajax, but he admits that Ajax was both noble and courageous. He shakes hands with Teucer in friendship, but Teucer, lest the gods be offended, refuses his offer to assist in the burial. Thus Ajax, whose pride brought him to an early death, receives proper burial and the death ceremonies of a warrior hero.
Bibliography
Beer, Josh. Sophocles and the Tragedy of Athenian Democracy. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2004. Analyzes Sophocles’ plays within the context of Athenian democracy in the fifth century b.c.e., focusing on the political issues in the dramas. Examines Sophocles’ dramatic techniques and how they “revolutionized the concept of dramatic space.” Chapter 4 discusses Ajax.
Garvie, A. F. The Plays of Sophocles. Bristol, England: Bristol Classical, 2005. Concise analysis of Sophocles’ plays, with a chapter devoted to Ajax. Focuses on Sophocles’ tragic thinking, the concept of the Sophoclean hero, and the structure of his plays.
Hesk, Jon. Sophocles: “Ajax.” London: Duckworth, 2003. A companion to the play, placing it within the context of Sophoclean heroism and Athens’s masculine culture. Discusses the characters of Ajax and Tecmessa, the play’s depiction of deception and suicide, language and form, and the drama’s critical reception.
Kirkwood, Gordon MacDonald. A Study of Sophoclean Drama. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1958. Reprint. 1994. Analyzes Sophocles’ structures and methods of dramatic composition. Compares the plays of Sophocles, focusing on the characters, irony, illustrative forms, use of diction, and oracles in each. Excellent coverage of Ajax.
Morwood, James. The Tragedies of Sophocles. Exeter, England: Bristol Phoenix Press, 2008. Analyzes each of Sophocles’ seven extant plays, with chapter 2 devoted to Ajax. Discusses several modern productions and adaptations of the tragedies.
Ringer, Mark.“Electra” and the Empty Urn: Metatheater and Role Playing in Sophocles. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Focuses on elements of metatheater, or “theater within theater,” and ironic self-awareness in Sophocles’ plays. Analyzes plays-within-plays, characters who are in rivalry with the playwright, and characters who assume roles in order to deceive one another. Chapter 3 focuses on Ajax.
Scodel, Ruth. Sophocles. Boston: Twayne, 1984. Focuses on the historical and mythological significance of the character of Ajax. Discusses the plot and compares it to Homer’s Iliad. Provides information on Sophocles’ seven plays. Includes a chronology of Sophocles’ life, a bibliography, and an index.
Seale, David. Vision and Stagecraft in Sophocles. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. An excellent starting point. Distinguishes Sophocles from other playwrights of his time and demonstrates his influence on later ones. Considers the theatrical technicalities in many Sophoclean plays, including Ajax. Includes an extended explanation and notes regarding Ajax.
Segal, Charles. Tragedy and Civilization: An Interpretation of Sophocles. Cambridge, Mass.: Published for Oberlin College by Harvard University Press, 1981. Compares Ajax to the other plays by Sophocles in terms of structure and theme. Traces and explains the plot.
Woodard, Thomas, ed. Sophocles: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966. A collection of essays, including writings by Friedrich Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud, and Virginia Woolf. Draws connections between Ajax and later literary works.