Anglo-Norman literature

Anglo-Norman literature refers to the body of literature written in England after the Norman Conquest of 1066. Although scholars debate the end of the Anglo-Norman period, most believe that it lasted into the early fourteenth century. The invasion of England by William, the Duke of Normandy, changed the course of English history and introduced French culture and language into the Anglo-Saxon world. Anglo-Norman literature was written in a dialect of Old French that was spoken in the French region of Normandy. It consisted primarily of three themes: religion, courtly romance, and the legends of the ancient Celts. Among the most popular and influential works from the period was a history of Britain written by scholar Geoffrey of Monmouth in the twelfth century. Although Geoffrey’s historical accuracy is considered dubious at best, his Historia Regum Britanniae is known for introducing the character of King Arthur into English literature.

Background

During the late first millennium BCE, the Celts, a group of tribes united by similar languages and culture, spread across western and northern Europe, arriving in Britain about 900 to 600 BCE. With the rise of the Roman Republic, the Romans and Celts often battled across mainland Europe, with Rome emerging victorious. In 55 CE, Roman general Julius Caesar invaded Britain but was forced to withdraw in the face of stiff resistance from the Celts. In 43 CE, the Roman armies returned to Britain, and this time, their invasion was successful and most of Britain fell under Roman control. However, the Celts were able to hold out against the Romans in remote areas such as Ireland and northern Britain.

The Romans ruled Britain until the early fifth century when the forces of the now-crumbling empire left the island. Within a few decades, several Germanic tribes from northern Europe began arriving in Britain. These tribes, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, slowly spread and consolidated their hold on the island, establishing several kingdoms throughout Britain. In the early tenth century, these kingdoms were united by King Æthelstan into a common Anglo-Saxon political entity.

Near the end of the eighth century, Viking raiders from Scandinavia began a series of attacks on coastal cities in Britain and mainland Europe and eventually seized control of territory in northern Britain. In 911, a Viking warrior named Rollo raided France and threatened Paris. Not wishing to engage in a bloody conflict, the French king granted Rollo land in northwestern France in return for his protection against future Viking raids. This land was named Normandy, “land of the Northmen.” Rollo and his descendants converted to Christianity, married local women, and adopted French customs. The ruler of Normandy was known by the title of Duke of Normandy.

In the early eleventh century, Viking forces from Denmark invaded Britain and seized control of the English throne, forcing King Æthelred and his family to flee to Normandy. Æthelred’s son and heir Edward spent much of his early life exiled in Normandy, maintaining his right to the throne and gaining support among the Norman nobility. When the Viking king of England died in 1042, Edward was named king. He ruled until 1066 when he died without an heir. Edward’s brother-in-law, Harold Godwinson, claimed the throne. However, William, the Duke of Normandy, a distant cousin to Edward, claimed that Edward had named him his successor and viewed Harold as illegitimate.

William invaded England with his Norman army and defeated King Harold in the Battle of Hastings on October 14, 1066. William’s victory marked the end of Anglo-Saxon rule in England and the start of the Anglo-Norman era. Anglo-Saxon landowners were almost entirely replaced by Normans, as were most of the Anglo-Saxon bishops. Even more impactful, the Norman dialect of Old French became the spoken language among England’s nobility, bringing an end to the Old English language spoken by the Anglo-Saxons.

Overview

The new Norman aristocracy was fascinated by the legends of ancient Britain, particularly from the time of the Celts. About 1136, a Welsh monk named Geoffrey of Monmouth compiled a supposed history of Britain called Historia Regum Britanniae, or The History of the Kings of Britain. Geoffrey claimed his work was based on an ancient Welsh book, but modern scholars doubt such a book existed. Instead, they see Historia Regum Britanniae as a mixture of Celtic tales and Roman history combined with Geoffrey’s embellishments and all-out fabrications.

The book begins with the Trojan warrior Aeneas escaping the fall of Troy and the founding of Britain by Aeneas’ great-grandson Brutus, who supposedly named the island after himself. It recounts the rise and fall of centuries of British kings, including the mythological King Leir who would inspire William Shakespeare’s tragic play King Lear in 1606.

However, the most notable name found in Geoffrey’s work was the last king of the Celtic Britons, Arthur, son of Uther Pendragon. Geoffrey portrayed Arthur as a historical king who attempted to drive off the Saxon invasions in the fifth and sixth centuries. In one battle, Arthur is said to have single-handedly killed 470 Saxon warriors. Geoffrey also has Arthur conquer Norway, defeat the Roman armies, and kill a Spanish giant. In the year 542, Arthur is mortally wounded in battle, but before he dies, he passes his crown to his kinsman Constantine. In addition to Arthur, Geoffrey also introduces the magician Merlin, Arthur’s wife, Guinevere, and the magical sword Excalibur.

Historia Regum Britanniae proved immensely popular and inspired several other writers of the era to add their own elements to the Arthurian legend. About 1155, Norman poet Wace compiled his version of Historia Regum Britanniae, Roman de Brut, which was the first work of British history written in Norman French. Wace’s version of Arthur’s story is notable for including the first mention of the Knights of the Round Table. In the late twelfth century, French poet Chrétien de Troyes took the story of Arthur and added elements of romance and courtly love, the ideal that a knight will devote himself completely to the woman he loves. Chrétien, who is considered the father of medieval romantic literature, introduced several well-known elements to the Arthurian legend. He was the first to mention Arthur’s court at Camelot, the knight Lancelot, and the quest for the Holy Grail.

Also in the late twelfth century, a poet known as Thomas of England drew inspiration from the Celtic legend of Tristan and Iseult for his poem Tristan. In the story, Tristan is a knight sent to escort the Irish princess Iseult for her marriage to the king of Cornwall. Along the way, they accidentally drink a love potion and fall madly in love with each other. Iseult does her duty and marries the king, but she and Tristan secretly carry on an affair. When the king finds out, Tristan is banished, but the two continue to pine for each other.

French poet Marie de France lived in the latter half of the twelfth century and was another notable romantic writer of the time. She was known for writing a genre called Breton lays, short French poems consisting of lines with eight syllables. Marie wrote twelve lays, blending the concepts of courtly love and chivalry with Celtic folklore. One of the lays, Lanval, tells the story of the knight Lanval, a member of King Arthur’s court who falls in love with a fairy woman. Another lay, Chevrefoil, is a variation of the Tristan and Iseult legend.

A poet named Nicholas de Guildford has been credited with writing the early thirteenth century poem The Owl and the Nightingale, a debate between the two birds of the title. In the poem, the Owl represents moral thought and the religious life, while the Nightingale represents the joys of courtly love. The Nightingale argues that the Owl’s song is depressing and stuffy, while the Nightingale sings a joyful melody. The Owl counters that singing is the Nightingale’s only talent, and she only sings in summer. The Owl, meanwhile, notes that she fulfils other purposes, such as keeping rats out of the church.

In an era where the Catholic Church was the main pillar of medieval society, religious works such as the Bible, Gospels, and compilations of prayers were among the most widely read books of the era. Stories about the lives of Catholic Saints were especially popular. Among the most well-known was the Voyage of St. Brendan by the French poet Benedeit. The poem, which was written in the twelfth century, tells the story of sixth-century Irish monk St. Brendan who was said to have embarked on several voyages across the Atlantic. According to legend, Brendan and his fellow monks reached Iceland and, possibly, the coast of Newfoundland.

One of the first plays written in Anglo-Norman French was Mystère d’Adam, which recounts the stories of Adam and Eve and the early prophets from the book of Genesis. English Bishop Robert Grossteste wrote a religious allegory in French called The Castle of Love in the thirteenth century. The castle of the title refers to Jesus’s mother, Mary, who is seen as a refuge and hope for people who come to seek out her grace. Likely first written in the early fourteenth century, Cursor Mundi, or The History of the World, recounts the events from the Bible from the creation and the fall of Satan to God’s return at the apocalypse. Included in the narrative is a detailed account of Jesus’s life, including his death and resurrection.

Bibliography

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Cartwright, Mark. “The Impact of the Norman Conquest of England.” World History Encyclopedia, 23 Jan. 2019, www.worldhistory.org/article/1323/the-impact-of-the-norman-conquest-of-england/. Accessed 24 Nov. 2022.

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Harper-Bill, Christopher, and Elisabeth M. C. Van Houts, eds. A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World. Boydell Press, 2002.

Harrison, Julian. “Who Were the Anglo-Saxons?” British Library, www.bl.uk/anglo-saxons/articles/who-were-the-anglo-saxons. Accessed 24 Nov. 2022.

Harvey, Carol J. “The Anglo-Norman Courtly Lyric.” Quidditas, 1986, scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1631&context=rmmra. Accessed 24 Nov. 2022.

Kingdon, D.J. “Anglo-Norman Literature.” An Open Companion to Early British Literature, edited by Allegra Villarreal. Pressbooks, 2019.