Bilingualism as a Literary Device

At Issue

Bilingualism in literature is a means by which writers may clarify, interpret, and communicate a community’s cultural identity. The technique produces a synthesis of cultural attitudes, values, beliefs, and perspectives. One may argue that bilingualism in literature is a powerful way of maintaining a community’s identity within a larger culture. For example, switching from English to Spanish and then back again is one way Chicanos can reflect the norms of their community. In addition, the use of two languages in one literary work produces compelling images.

Code Switching

In Chicano literature, bilingualism, especially in poetry, may take two different forms. One form is to have one language on the even-numbered pages of a book and the other language on the odd-numbered pages; readers see more or less the same literary piece in two separate languages. This form lends itself most readily to poetry. A reader who is able to read only one of the two languages may, in a sense, read the work. Another form is to mix the two languages together in one piece of writing. This mixing is called code switching, after the linguistic term for the practice of switching languages while speaking. The advantage of code switching is that it may capture accurately the speech and experience of a bilingual person; the clear disadvantage, from a publishing standpoint, is that the audience for a code-switching bilingual work is limited to those who speak both languages.

Mexican American Poetry

For Mexican Americans and others who are reared in an environment in which two languages are in constant use, bilingualism in literature may be seen as a means of establishing a distinctive sense of community identification. Further, many contemporary Mexican American poets have found that, by code switching, they may discover the most apt phrase or image. For those who are bilingual, bilingualism in literature enhances and accurately reflects their artistic powers. Mexican American literature is in its origins a hybrid of Spanish, Mexican, Indian, and Anglo elements, and it is a result of intense historical cultural conflict. Bilingualism in literature is a natural response to this cultural situation and is a technique for the clarification of a community’s cultural identity.

The use of two languages within a single work of literature is not the exclusive domain of Mexican American writers. The technique, however, does hold political significance for this group. Chicano author Rudolfo A. Anaya, in his essay “Take the Tortilla out of Your Poetry” (in Censored Books: Critical Viewpoints, 1993), writes that the use of bilingualism in literature is one way to preserve cultural identity. He also states that bilingualism may often prevent certain writers from getting an unbiased reading from editors. Anaya’s novel Bless Me, Ultima (1972) uses bilingualism as well as elements of religion and mysticism that are specific to Mexican American culture. Ironically, the book, which is set in New Mexico, was banned from high school classes in New Mexico.

Bilingualism has also been utilized in literary works by such groups as Puerto Ricans, Native Americans, and others. For example, while writing primarily in English, Native American poet Simon J. Ortiz incorporates words and speech patterns from his culture. Cormac McCarthy, winner of numerous fiction awards, also uses elements of bilingualism in his work. This device creates a heightened sense of contrasting cultural identities, which mirrors the philosophical and emotional conflicts within the characters. Other works, including Ernest Hemingway’s For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940) and José Antonio Villarreal’s Pocho (1959), are in one language (English) but that language is influenced in grammar and syntax by a second (Spanish). Pocho also uses bilingualism to chart its Chicano protagonist’s assimilation. The beginning of the book includes a few Spanish words. As the character moves toward assimilation, the book no longer uses Spanish and its English is less affected by Spanish.

Alurista (Alberto Urista) is credited with being one of the pioneers of bilingualism in contemporary poetry. Using combinations of Spanish, English, and popular idiom, his work reveals the heritage of his community. Alurista’s collections of poetry include Floricanto en Aztlán (1971), Nationchild Plumaroja (1972), and Timespace Huracán (1976). Other notable bilingual poets include Tino Villanueva and Jose Montoya. Some Chicana writers intermingle words that reflect issues of cultural identity and of gender.

A prime example of the cultural resonance of bilingualism among Mexican Americans is la Malinche, who figures in the history of the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards in the early sixteenth century. Traditionally she has been thought of as one who betrayed her people by helping Hernán Cortés conquer the Aztecs, but she has been rehabilitated by some Chicana writers. La Malinche spoke Aztec, learned Spanish, and acted as Cortés’ interpreter. She has been recast as the first Mexican bilingual, the first of a new breed of people who bridged cultures and adapted to a reality that was not of their making. La Malinche, many Chicana writers point out, found an important role in a world in which men were powerful, and male historians were responsible for her vilification. By rehabilitating la Malinche and by acknowledging their bilingualism, many Chicana writers endeavor to present the reality of the cultural identity of Mexican American women.

Another character often seen in Mexican American literature is the pachuco. This figure is drawn from twentieth century urban life and can be briefly described as a hero and a hoodlum. Luis Miguel Valdez’s Zoot Suit (1978), the first Mexican American play to be produced on Broadway, has a narrator-chorus figure named El Pachuco. Valdez uses this spiritlike, bilingual character to symbolize the consciousness of urbanized Mexican Americans. In a similar way, Alfredo Vea, Jr.’s La Maravilla (1993) intermingles Spanish words, sounds, and phrases with English and even some Yaqui words to illustrate the confluence of cultures that helped to produce his character’s distinctly Mexican American identity. Thus folklore, myth, and legend combine with bilingual elements to emphasize the hybrid cultural heritage of Mexican Americans.

Bibliography

De Dwyer, Carlota Cardenas, ed. Chicano Voices. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985.

Gutierrez, Ramon, and Genaro Padilla, eds. Recovering the U.S. Hispanic Literary Heritage: Chicano Literature. Houston, Tex.: Arte Público Press, 1993.

Lattin, Vernon, ed. Contemporary Chicano Fiction. New York: Bilingual Press, 1986.

Simmen, Edward, ed. North of the Rio Grande. New York: Penguin Books, 1992.

Sommers, Joseph, and Tomás Ybarra-Frausto, eds. Modern Chicano Writers: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1979.