Common Sense by Thomas Paine

First published: 1776

Type of work: Political philosophy

The Work:

Common Sense, a sixty-seven-page pamphlet advocating complete separation of Great Britain’s North American colonies from the parent country, is one of the most influential pieces of political writing ever published. It is also an important landmark in the history of literary development, representing the first major piece of political writing, in any language, to effectively reach the working classes. The pamphlet appeared in Philadelphia on January 10, 1776, at a critical juncture in the genesis of the American Revolution. A state of armed rebellion had existed in Massachusetts since April, 1775. The Continental Congress, first convened in 1774 and reconvened in 1775, was meeting in Philadelphia. Many of its members, selected by colonial assemblies, were cautious in their approach to independence and believed a compromise was possible. Thomas Paine wrote on behalf of those who felt such caution did not reflect the will or best interests of most North Americans. Common Sense aimed to bring pressure to bear on indecisive politicians by galvanizing popular opinion in favor of complete separation backed by force of arms.

The pamphlet appeared at a particularly opportune moment. Its publication coincided with the arrival of George III’s address to Parliament declaring the colonies to be in a state of rebellion and pledging to use military force to prevent separation. The resentment against the British monarchy that this communication fanned resonated with the strong antiking, antiaristocratic message of Common Sense.

The work comprises four chapters, with an introduction and appendix added in the second (February, 1776) edition. The first two chapters discuss the origins of government and the structure and function of the British monarchy, respectively. Chapter 3 focuses on the political situation in 1775-1776 and contains specific recommendations for recruiting soldiers, financing a war, and structuring a new government. Chapter 4 recapitulates the arguments of chapter 3, urging unity and continued armed resistance at a level sufficient to achieve victory.

In the first chapter, “On the Origin and Design of Government in General, with Concise Remarks on the English Constitution,” Paine views government as a necessary evil, arising when people begin associating in larger social groups and require rules and authority to restrain their baser instincts. He envisions the original form of human government as republican, without hereditary distinctions, and views the British government of his day as the base remnant of two ancient tyrannies—monarchy and aristocracy—with some new republican materials grafted on in the form of the House of Commons. Any disposition to retain this fundamentally corrupt form of government, he warns, will hinder the formation of something better. The chapter was an argument against those who wanted more colonial autonomy but wished to retain ties to the Crown.

Chapter 2, “Of Monarchy and Hereditary Succession,” begins with a commentary on the biblical stories of Gideon’s refusal of the crown of Israel (Judges 8) and Samuel’s anointing of Saul (I Samuel 8-10), emphasizing that Israel became a monarchy in imitation of its heathen neighbors and that the prophet Samuel warned the Israelites against crowning a king. It argues that, as bad as it is to vest absolute power in one man under any circumstances, hereditary kingship is far worse because the representatives of the people no longer have any say in the succession.

Paine minces no words in his abuse of George III, calling him insolent, ignorant, and unfit. Britain’s king, according to Paine, has no real function but devours the public wealth and controls the Commons by dispensing places. Paine points out that some would argue that a monarchy confers stability. In response, he asks: If this is the case, why has England been so frequently plagued by civil wars, while Switzerland and Holland, which have no king, have been peaceful by comparison? Chapter 2 is an argument both against retaining ties to the British crown and against founding a new American dynasty.

Chapter 3, “Thoughts on the Present State of American Affairs,” emphasizes the universality of Paine’s message and stresses the common cause of all the inhabitants of North America, “An eighth part of the habitable globe.” This chapter speaks to those in the colonies who hope to spread the struggle to Canada and to the Spanish possessions in Louisiana and Florida. Paine argues that America is no longer a colony of Britain, since it is populated by “the persecuted lovers of liberty from every corner of Europe.” At the time he wrote, colonial troops were besieging Quebec.

Paine argues that America does not need to retain ties with Britain to defend itself. Other European countries, he says, are hostile to America only because of its connection to Great Britain; they would become willing allies and trading partners in the event of independence. Americans, moreover, have a duty to their posterity to fight the war of independence to a successful conclusion, rather than negotiating a compromise. Otherwise, all the sacrifices they have already made will have been in vain.

Paine presents the outline of a proposed government for the new nation, with a single house of representatives and a rotating annual presidency. The president would be chosen by ballot from among the representatives of a given state (itself chosen by lot), and a three-fifths majority would be required to pass any law. Paine calls for freedom of religion and of property for all men. Common Sense makes no mention of slavery, but elsewhere Paine is on record as one of its earliest unequivocal opponents.

Chapter 4, “Of the Present Ability of America: With Some Miscellaneous Reflections,” addresses the question of whether America can win the war. America, Paine says, has sufficient manpower. Although England is far more populous and has an enormous treasury, American men are better prepared to fight, and the country abounds in raw materials. While America has no navy, it has a thriving shipbuilding industry and could easily produce one. To pay the debt such a war will inevitably incur, Paine proposes selling unoccupied lands. He anticipates that petitions to foreign courts will produce aid, but only if the Continental Congress opts for total independence and does so quickly.

When Common Sense appeared in print, Paine, an Englishman, had been in America for two years and had established himself as editor of the Pennsylvania Magazine. The son of a Norfolk corset maker, he had unsuccessfully pursued a number of occupations in England before emigrating to avoid creditors. His working-class background, limited formal education, and Quaker heritage produced a more populist outlook than that of most contemporary political thinkers.

Paine experienced considerable difficulty finding a publisher for the first edition of one thousand copies. When he finally secured one, the pamphlet was an instant success. As a result of the absence of copyright laws, a rival publisher was able to offer a revised version, with commentaries on the king’s address to Parliament, selling it for a shilling and paying Paine a royalty, which he donated to the colonial armed forces. Common Sense eventually sold in excess of 200,000 copies, making it the number one best seller of the eighteenth century. The absence of copyright protection in the colonies prevented Paine from realizing much income from these phenomenal sales.

The success of Common Sense was due in no small part to Paine’s writing style and method of developing arguments. British North America was nearly unique in having a literate working-class population, a high proportion of whom were involved in the political process. Without their support, any independence movement would have been doomed to fail. Paine correctly identified the issues of most urgency to this audience and laid them out in a clear, straightforward manner, without referring to schools of political thought, obscure historical episodes, or the authority of ancient Greece and Rome. His main reference, other than current events, was the Bible, with which his readers were thoroughly familiar.

Paine’s writing itself is a superb example of fitting the English language to subject and audience without rendering it a blunt and clumsy tool. The text abounds in vivid turns of phrase that have remained highly quotable. Even if it were not a key document in American history, Common Sense would deserve a place in the front rank of important books on the strength of its innovative expression alone.

The call for complete independence fell on willing ears. On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress produced a document making Paine’s sentiments and recommendations official policy for the rebellious colonies. The American War of Independence began in 1775, but the United States marks the issuance of the Declaration of Independence as its moment of birth.

Bibliography

Canavan, Francis S. J. “Thomas Paine.” In History of Political Philosophy, edited by Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey. 3d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. A general assessment of Paine’s political views.

Foner, Eric. Tom Paine and Revolutionary America. Rev. ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. An essential work for understanding the historical background of Common Sense.

Larkin, Edward. Thomas Paine and the Literature of Revolution. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Places Paine in the context of his contemporaries, providing a good overview of eighteenth century political discourse.

Nelson, Craig. Thomas Paine: Enlightenment, Revolution, and the Birth of Modern Nations. New York: Viking Press, 2006. Discusses the relationship of Paine to the Founding Fathers. Details Common Sense’s publication history.

Paine, Thomas. Political Writings. Edited by Bruce Kuklick. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. The bulk of this text comprises Paine’s original works; also includes a good introduction and annotations. Part of the Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought series.