Epic poetry

Epic poetry refers to literature that, in a solemn and majestic style, tells the stories of legendary heroes or the mythic origins of a people. The first epic poems arose from oral traditions of archaic cultures. These were originally anonymous compositions transmitted orally from one generation to another and often recounted with musical accompaniment. In time, some of these songs were written down, which gave them a relatively homogenous format and style. Such is the case of the first epic texts known to the West, such as the Greek Iliad (ca. 750 BCE; English translation, 1611) and Odyssey (ca. 725 BCE; English translation, 1614), attributed to the poet Homer. These two epic poems were the most important throughout Western literature. Other epic poems from ancient civilizations include the Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE; English translation, 1917) and the Mahābhārata (400 BCE–200 CE, present form by about 400 CE). Epic poetry survived through many centuries, eventually influencing other art forms, such as theater, music, and film.

Background

Stemming from the first Greek and Roman works, epic poetry became a genre with well-defined, even formulaic, characteristics. As they were written down, epics became known as works by sole authors, who chose themes and styles. The tone, however, remained traditionally solemn and gave way to clichés and the repetition of known phrases. Originally, these were mnemonic devices to help commit poetry to memory, as poems were sung or taught by one storyteller to another. When epics were written down, their lyrical and repetitive characteristics became elements of the genre.

Epic poetry also depends on the existence of a hero who must overcome adversity and, by doing so, exalt the values cherished by a people or nation. Some epics espouse religious values. Because epics are long, they tend to have limited structures. They generally begin with a supposition about what the story will be. Next is usually an invocation, in which the author addresses a god or a muse, requesting aid or in the enterprise. The narration is the section in which the adventures and events take place and may include speeches, descriptions, expositions, explanations, similes, allegories, or other literary elements. The tone is elevated and solemn.

The rhyme and style depend upon the era the epic was transcribed and the preferences of the author, although the epic employs some traditional meters, such as the dactylic hexameter. Early Roman epics have three fundamental characteristics: Homeric influence, utilization of national history as an epic argument, and the influence of Alexandrine poetry. Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey are the most influential works in the epic genre. At this time, epic poetry had two possible currents: mythology or national exaltation. Romans preferred the second, especially during the period of the Roman Empire. Some poets such as Vergil, for example, managed to combine both strains in their work. Roman scholars discovered early Greek poetry from a group of poets in Alexandria who had developed an erudite mythological poetry. From this type of poetry, Roman authors developed extensive narratives on mythological themes, as seen in Ovid’s Metamorphoses (ca. 8 CE; English translation, 1480).

Overview

There were many Roman epic authors of great renown, such as Catullus, Horace, Lucan, and Vergil. The Aeneid (ca. 29–19 BCE; English translation, 1553) was Vergil’s magnum opus. Although the text follows the Greek style, scholars claim it is the premier example of the Roman epic. According to legend, Aeneas, the epic’s hero, was a forefather of the founders of Rome and was considered a direct ancestor of the emperors Julius Caesar and Octavian Augustus. The central theme of Aeneid is obedience to duty, and Aeneas’ main purpose throughout the epic is to finish his mission for the greater glory of Rome and the emperor.

Epic poetry was not limited to the ancient civilizations. Epic poems and chansons de geste (French epics) were ubiquitous and popular entertainment in the Middle Ages. They were long, sung narrations in verse, which told of legendary events. These were usually sung by minstrels, troubadours, or jongleurs. In the Middle Ages, the epic had many functions: to mark relevant milestones or values important to the community, to present ideal role models, and to inform and to disseminate news about battles.

Troubadours sang in plazas, markets, manors, and courts. They were accompanied by musical instruments and often carried their songs written on scrolls, some of which have survived. Often an epic would be composed in one language and region, travel throughout several regions, and then be adapted in different communities to the language and geographical landmarks of the place. Among the most famous medieval epic songs are the French La Chanson de Roland (ca. 1100; The Song of Roland), which describes the battle of Roncesvalles; the Old English poem Beowulf (ca. 1000), originally a Germanic story, in which the Scandinavian hero Beowulf travels to Denmark to rid the people of the monster Grendel; the Spanish poem El Cantar de Mio Cid (ca. 1140; The Poem of the Cid), which celebrates the life and adventures of a legendary warrior; and Dante’s La divina commedia (ca. 1320; The Divine Comedy, 1802), considered one of the world’s greatest works of literature. There are many other medieval epics, some of which have only survived in fragmented form, such as the Germanic Das Nibelungenlied (ca. 1200; Song of the Nibelungs) and the Icelandic sagas. Because ancient and medieval epics were transmitted orally, many have been lost and others survived in heavily edited, fragmented, or rewritten form only. The authorship of most is unknown or uncertain.

There were many other epics after the medieval age, such as those written by the Renaissance’s Ludovico Ariosto and Torquato Tasso. Ariosto wrote Orlando Furioso (1516), and Tasso wrote Gerusalemme liberata (1581; Jerusalem Delivered, 1600), both of which explore religious and national identity. Although written in the sixteenth century in classic Greek and Latin forms, both are considered works of modern literature. Some of the most salient epics in English literature are John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667) and Lord Byron’s Don Juan (1819–26). Milton’s Paradise Lost is considered the most important epic in modern English. It displays multiple influences, including those of Homer, Vergil, the Italian epic tradition, and the Bible. It is also a political allegory, according to many scholars, which highlights the author’s deeply antimonarchical sentiments and reflects the influence of the English Civil War (1642–51).

The history of the epic genre spans more than two thousand years and has spread to other art forms, such as music, opera, novels, and film. The genre has likely survived because the conflicts and moral lessons it presents mirror the universal human experience through the ages.

Bibliography

Bates, Catherine, ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Epic. New York: Cambridge UP, 2010. Print.

Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. 3rd ed. Novato: New World Lib., 2008. Print.

López-Ruiz, Carolina, ed. Gods, Heroes, and Monsters: A Sourcebook of Greek, Roman, and Near Eastern Myths in Translation. New York: Oxford UP, 2013. Print.

Murdoch, Brian. The Germanic Hero: Politics and Pragmatism in Early Medieval Poetry. London: Hambledon, 1996. Print.

Rosenberg, Donna. World Mythology: An Anthology of Great Myths and Epics. New York: McGraw, 2001. Print.

Santas, Constantine, et al. The Encyclopedia of Epic Films. Lanham: Rowman, 2014. Print.

Simerka, Barbara. Discourses of Empire: Counter-Epic Literature in Early Modern Spain. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State UP, 2003. Print.

Turner, Frederick. Epic: Form, Content, and History. New Brunswick: Transaction, 2012. Print.

Usher, Phillip John. Epic Arts in Renaissance France. New York: Oxford UP, 2014. Print.

Welch, Anthony. The Renaissance Epic and the Oral Past. New Haven: Yale UP, 2012. Print.