Folktales

Introduction

The folktale, also known as the marchen and the fairy tale, has been around for thousands of years and was originally told by peasant women as entertainment during household gatherings. Although the tales were often serious in tone, they also served as a means to draw groups of people together in physical space and communal beliefs. Among the topics often recanted were the adventures of heroic figures, the explanations of natural occurrences, such as changes in the weather, and the celebration of events, such as harvesting and hunting. The tales often included magical and fantastical events, animal characters, and faraway lands, which provided the listener with vivid images.

Over time, the middle class and aristocracy took over telling the tales, which influenced the themes presented. The household gatherings became a private experience, directly contradicting previous communal events. This, in combination with the advent of the printing press during the fifteenth century, initiated the rise of a new genre of the written tale. Where previously everyone could enjoy the oral tale, many people were not yet literate when the written tale emerged, which fostered feelings of elitism and socialism. Ultimately, the folktale was categorized into many different narrative forms, such as legends, myths, fables, and comical anecdotes.

Scholars have paid increased attention to folktales and their history to categorize and study them. In particular, many have traced the origin of the tales, the common themes, and the motifs. Often, the tales reflect the culture and civilization in which they were born. Many tales hold the same core story that has been retold as they have been passed from one culture to another.

Storytelling requires many skills to captivate an audience, particularly when complex. It is often difficult to separate whether a tale originated in oral or written form because the themes and motifs have blended over time and been altered by cultural influences. Some oral tales may have been derived from written tales, and vice versa.

The Aarne-Thompson Index

In 1910, Antti Aarne, a Finnish folklorist, published Verzeichnis der Marchentypen (The Types of Folktales), which outlined the first classification system for folktales by dividing them into three categories: animal tales, ordinary folktales, and humorous tales, which he then further subdivided into categories based on the nature of the tale’s content, particular aspects of the tale, and the main characters. The index he developed was derived from analyzing the various motifs in international folktales. Aarne created 1,940 spaces for independent categorized entries, but at his death, he had only used 540.

After Aarne’s death, American folklorist Stith Thompson expanded upon Aarne’s classification system in the published Aarne-Thompson Index. The system further organized Aarne’s existing documentation into an outlined system of sequential motifs incorporating a number, letter, title, and a brief tale summary. Each tale also was assigned a motif number and a bibliographic reference, accompanied by the tale’s original country of origin.

Thompson’s expansion sought to clarify that folktales had similar characters, details, plots, or motifs that originated from a particular geographical location. He believed that each tale had an original birthplace, and by using the diffusion theory (a study done by Kaarle Krohn and Franz Boas) to examine the tales, Thompson further determined that the changes were influenced by each new culture that the tale encountered.

Thompson added more than 1,000 additional entries to Aarne’s existing 540. The expanded index has helped scholars to identify and annotate texts and to allow parallels to be drawn in folklore. In addition to his contributions to the Aarne-Thompson Index, Thompson published the Motif Index of Folk Literature in the 1930s, followed by a 1950s revised edition, one of the most comprehensive general folklore reference books used today. He also wrote The Folktale (1946), a handbook of the historic geographical method of folktale studies meant to promote the worth of international folktales.

Morphology of the Folktale

Vladimir Propp, a Russian folklorist of German descent, was one of the first theorists to develop a widely accepted classification system for folktales, which ranks his work as a major contributing source to folktale theory.

His 1928 work, Morphology of the Folktale (originally entitled Morphology of the Wondertale but renamed to extend its appeal to a wider audience), outlined a categorization system that organized the structural components of Russian folktales. His classification began with evaluating what is contained within the tale rather than what had previously been categorized by critics. Propp’s theory was that the tales contained a common plot structure, consisting of thirty-one elements that occur in a systematic order in every tale. He also claimed that the main character types are repeated in each tale.

To classify the tales, Propp examined Wilhelm Wundt’s proposal in The Psychology of Peoples (1900), which stated that folktales can be divided into seven categories: mythological tales and fables, pure fairy tales, biological tales and fables, pure animal fables, genealogical tales, joke tales and fables, and moral fables. Propp declared that some of these categories were vague since the fable had yet to be clearly defined, and a “joke tale” could qualify as heroic or comic. These flaws would lead to inconsistencies in categorization.

Propp also speculated that other classification systems could be applied to analyzing tales, such as classification by theme. Still, he also acknowledged that classifying by theme lacked accuracy because each author may define a theme differently. When discussing the theory behind theme classification, he determined that following a simple pattern from the tale could aid in categorizing. The categories were made by selecting a notable part of the tale and adding the word “about” to the beginning of the phrase. For example, if a tale outlined a marriage ceremony, by adding “about” to the topic, the phrase “about marriage ceremonies” would become a viable division for that and other tales. He acknowledged that this process also defies a logical pattern because it can be manipulated based on the person identifying the theme, rendering it unreliable. In addition, some tales could be classified by their complication, while others were organized by the action.

Propp also evaluated Aarne’s classification system, which divided the tales into previously established thematic categories that are then evaluated for their basic structure, dissemination, and origin. This resulted in the indexed list of 540 “types” of tales. Even with this intricate indexing, there were still inconsistencies. The basic categories for this system are animal tales, tales proper, and anecdotes. Aarne further divides the tales into subclassifications: supernatural adversary, supernatural husband/wife, supernatural task, supernatural helper, magic object, supernatural power or knowledge, and other supernatural motifs. Propp argued that this system was also inaccurate because a tale could qualify in multiple categories.

Brothers Grimm

Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm were from a farming family, which helped them become familiar with traditional stories about nature and the basic superstitions of the people of their land. Many of their tales are thought to be of German or French descent and were gathered from storytellers the Grimms would gather at their home in groups to entertain with oral literature. Together, they spent many years publishing works on many facets of German culture, such as law and heroic legend. Because of their familiarity with both the oral folktale and the literary fairy tale, the brothers combined the traditions to retell the German people's customs and traditions.

Between 1806 and 1810, the brothers gathered folktales and folklore, which they eventually worked into the large collection of folk and fairy tales entitled Kinder-und Hausmärchen (1812, 1815; revised 1819-1822; German Popular Stories, 1823-1826), which was published in two volumes in 1812 and 1815, while the final edition, which included 211 tales, was published in 1857 in German. The seventh and final edition was translated by Jack Zipes, who attempted to incorporate the brothers’ individual voices as well as the correct idioms. The collection also was translated into English.

Between 1812 and 1819, the brothers made many edits to the collection, including eliminating offensive materials and adding religious references that the growing middle class and aristocracy could recognize. Their fairy tales were meant to maintain the oral traditions as closely as possible and often included the stylistic and thematic elements with which the growing middle class would be familiar. They intended to pass on the knowledge of the people who knew the ancient lore. They were convinced that their tales possessed essential truths about the origins of civilization, and they believed that historical knowledge of customs and laws would increase self-understanding and social elucidation. Many of the tales, however, were tailored to fit the needs of the brothers. Therefore, many scholars deemed the tales historically inaccurate for the exclusive study of oral tradition.

However, the brothers are given credit for mixing oral and literary motifs. This combination has allowed folklorists to study the works and look for comparisons in other folktales to determine the possible origins, differences in the oral traditions, and the customs and beliefs of different countries. In addition, historians have found the tales worthy of study because of the historical references and details. Along with folktales and fairy tales, the brothers’ collection includes fables, legends, and anecdotes.

The Arabian Nights’ Entertainments

The Arabian Nights’ Entertainments, first published as Alf layla wa-layla, in the fifteenth century (English translation, 1706-1708), is a collection of stories that reflect the oral traditions from Persia, India, and Arabia, which date back as far as 850 c.e. The earliest printed version was published anonymously in the eighteenth century. The collection was first translated by Antoine Galland, a French translator and archivist, in 1704. His translation was published in pieces between 1703 and 1717. However, the most popular sixteen-volume translation was written by Sir Richard Burton, linguist, writer, and translator, and it appeared first in 1885. Then, it was followed by additional volumes completed in 1886 and 1888. Burton was fluent in Persian, Afghan, Hindustani, and Arabic. Because of Burton’s linguistic background, his translations are thought to be most authentic to the original text, making it the standard edition used by scholars.

The stories are a collection of tales told within a frame story in which Sultan Schahriah, whose brother’s wives have been unfaithful to his brother, believes that women cannot be trusted. In light of this, he elects to spend each evening with a different woman to avoid falling in love. At the start of a new day, he has the woman from the evening before killed. One evening, Scheherazade, in the requested company of her sister, tells a tale that he overhears. She intentionally leaves the story, which is at a climactic point, unfinished. Out of curiosity and hoping to hear the tale's end, he orders that she be kept alive and in his home for an extra evening. She continues this storytelling process for a thousand and one nights until he finally realizes that he loves her. Scheherazade's stories within the inner framework of The Arabian Nights’ Entertainments range from magical to humorous to disaster stories.

Animal Tales

Animal tales are the oldest form of storytelling and are the basis for written tales, such as myths, legends, and folktales. They trace back to ancient Greek folklore and are an essential part of North American storytelling religious traditions, which focus on human and animal connections. Indigenous Americans often highlighted the spiritual connections between humans and animals, particularly as guides or guardians in the human world.

Much animal-tale folklore portrays human and animal lives as interchangeable and centers on the marriage between the two. In many tales, animals are given powerful roles, such as the founder of a human tribe. In addition, women often give birth to animals, and there is a marriage between the two species. Bears, in particular, link the two because of their primordial stance.

These folktales can be connected to the rise of the oral and written fable, such as Aesopea (fourth-century Before the Common Era [BCE]); Aesop’s Fables, 1484), created by the ancient Greek storyteller Aesop, who lived around 620 BCE. The fable centers around animals that talk and behave as humans do. Fables, however, do not address the natural world, as folktales do, and instead focus on human nature, especially its failures.

In the twenty-first century, folktales continue to be written and told to audiences, reflecting folklore traditions and contemporary themes. The tales’ contexts are often modern, reflecting critical societal issues of the twenty-first century. Modern folktales continue to entertain and educate. They impart moral lessons while also having cultural relevancy. Creating and sharing modern folktales helps promote diversity in literature and societal acceptance. 

Bibliography

Georges, Robert A., and Michael Owen Jones. Folkloristics: An Introduction. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995.

Leeming, David Adams, editor. Storytelling Encyclopedia. Phoenix, Ariz.: Oryx Press, 1997.

McDermott, Sarah. “Why Long-lost Folklore Still Matters to Modern Listeners.” CNET, 29 Aug. 2019, www.cnet.com/culture/why-long-lost-folklore-still-matters-to-modern-listeners. Accessed 30 July 2024.

Propp, Vladimir. Morphology of the Folktale. 2d ed., Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968.

Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. New York: Dryden Press, 1946.

“Why Are Folktales Important?” August House Publishers, www.augusthouse.com/why-are-folktales-important. Accessed 30 July 2024.

Zakour, Azzaddine. “Why Reading Fables and Folktales is Still Relevant Today?” Medium, 16 Apr. 2022, medium.com/ed-tech-talks/why-you-should-read-fables-and-folktales-in-this-modern-age-1b3adec286ca. Accessed 30 July 2024.

Zipes, Jack, translator. The Complete Fairy Tales of the Brothers Grimm, Volume 1 and 2. New York: Bantam Books, 1987.

Zipes, Jack. Fairy Tale as Myth, Myth as Fairy Tale. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1994.