Forensic Mysteries

Introduction

Western society has long been preoccupied with mortality and quests for truth. Mystery fiction is, in a sense, a manifestation of society’s fascination with these powerful concepts. Mortality and quests for truth are as inextricably intertwined in mystery fiction as they are in life. Their interrelationship goes beyond the honesty and finality of death, particularly violent death as is usually the case in mystery fiction; it is the quest for answers around a murder or any other crime, which realizes justice for the victim and society, a concept encapsulated in the early nineteenth-century English scholar William Hazlitt’s observation, “Death cancels everything but truth.”

Quests for answers surrounding crimes have been transformed by the rapid evolution of science and technology, whose application to legal and criminal investigations is known as forensic science. Many disciplines and processes have permeated the legal practice of investigating deaths and other legal questions. Forensic science is neither law nor law enforcement but rather any science-based discipline that assists in investigations of crimes and preparations for legal cases.

The Forensic Sciences

Although almost any science or technology can be applied to criminal investigations, a limited number of established professional areas have firmly found their way into fiction and fact. They primarily deal with the study of human remains in forensic medicine or forensic anthropology, the study of criminal behavior in forensic psychology or profiling, and the examination of evidence or criminalistics. Criminalistics uses a variety of scientific processes to answer questions relating to biological evidence; trace evidence; impression evidence, such as fingerprints, footprints, tire tracks, and bloodstains; controlled substances; ballistics; and other evidence. Criminalistics often plays a crucial role in resolving investigations regularly reported in the news media and depicted in mystery fiction.

Although the forensic sciences have been used to investigate almost every conceivable type of crime, from theft and fraud to kidnapping and assault, the type of crime most commonly investigated in mystery and detective fiction is murder. Among the most common specialties in the forensic sciences about murder investigations are these:

•Forensic anthropology—application of physical anthropology to identify bodies and causes of death

•Forensic ballistics—science of identifying firearms and ammunition

•Forensic entomology—examination of insect evidence surrounding human remains to determine conditions of death

•Forensic graphology—handwriting analysis

•Forensic odontology—study of teeth for identification

•Forensic pathology—analysis of causes of death

•Forensic photography—accurate photographic reproduction of crime scenes

•Forensic psychology and psychiatry—legal aspects of human behavior or criminal profiling

•Forensic sculpting—facial reconstruction

•Forensic toxicology—study of the effect of drugs and poisons

Forensic Science in Early Mystery Fiction

Mystery fiction has often dealt with legal matters and investigations from a legal standpoint, using primary characters with some official standing in government law enforcement. As such, logic, reason, and observation are all at the core of mystery and detective novels. The forensic sciences' role in life and fiction is to provide objective, reasonable, and factual accounts of events based on the scientific method. Evidence used in forensic investigations is even more objective than that obtained from verbal testimonies and witness statements, as it uses physical evidence uncolored by human perception. In this way, forensic science is distinct from traditional legal and investigatory efforts and is committed to identifying hard facts that typify forensic scientists.

Edgar Allan Poe, the inventor of the modern detective story, was also the first author to bring science into play within mystery fiction. Although his works are typically permeated with profound psychological and philosophical meanings, his detective stories demonstrated the fundamental principles of scientific observation in criminal investigations. His detective, C. Auguste Dupin, declares that his “ultimate object is only the truth.” Poe’s use of scientific evidence is especially evident in his 1841 story “The Murders in the Rue Morgue,” which contains long statements from forensic experts, such as Dr. Paul Dumas, who testifies on the conditions in which the bodies of several murder victims were found. He describes the settings and the nature of the bodies’ wounds and analyzes the causes of those wounds in clinical yet graphic detail. Poe’s language heightens the effect:

The throat was greatly chafed. There were several deep scratches just below the chin, together with a series of livid spots which were evidently the impression of fingers. The face was fearfully discolored, and the eye-balls protruded. The tongue had been partially bitten through. A large bruise was discovered upon the pit of the stomach, produced, apparently, by the pressure of a knee. In the opinion of M. Dumas, Mademoiselle L’Espanaye had been throttled to death by some person or persons unknown.

Poe’s descriptions of scientific investigations and techniques detailing the investigations of Dupin are archetypal of the role that forensic science plays in mystery fiction. From the scientific, and often morbid, detail to the objective, almost emotionless, narrative, Dupin, and through him, Poe, pick their way through all the emotion and very human, gory detail to find the truth, that aim of all detectives.

’s 1852-1853 novel Bleak House centers around several mysteries narrated by various characters, who speak as if they were testifying in court. The novel’s plot involves intertwining intrigues, one of which is the question of the true identity of the orphan Esther Summerson. Inspector Bucket is also investigating the murder of a family lawyer, Mr. Tulkinghorn. Although not closely connected to the novel’s primary mystery, a sensational incident brings forensic elements to the fore when an alcoholic named Krook, who smells of brimstone, dies after spontaneously combusting. Dickens’s use of spontaneous combustion provoked controversy when his book was first published, so he attempted to explain the scientific basis of the phenomenon in the introduction to later editions. He claimed to have taken “pains to investigate the subject” and found evidence of about thirty recorded cases of spontaneous combustion, including a 1731 case in Italy on whose recorded description he modeled his own description of Krook’s burning. Bleak House also contains a strong forensic element that both records and reveals “the truth”—the concept of using personal images, in the form of portraits, to identify persons or to reveal things they may be trying to keep hidden. This device ultimately reveals both the murderer of Tulkinghorn and the parents of Esther.

Mark Twain is not well known as an author of detective stories, but he wrote several and significantly contributed to forensic evidence in fiction as the first author to use fingerprint evidence as a plot device, which he did twice. The first time was in a story about murder that he integrated into his classic work on the Mississippi River, Life on the Mississippi (1883). In that story, a German man whose wife and child were murdered in Arkansas tracks down the murderer and identifies him through a thumbprint matching one left behind by the murderer. Eleven years later, Twain elaborated on the device by having the title character of his novel Pudd’nhead Wilson (1894) make a career of collecting fingerprints. The novel reaches its dramatic climax in a trial scene in which Wilson uses fingerprint evidence not only to prove the identity of a murderer but also to prove that an enslaved man and a free man had been switched during infancy.

Arthur Conan Doyle, the creator of Sherlock Holmes, was not the first writer to employ elements of forensic science in his stories. However, he created the first, arguably the greatest, forensic scientist in fiction in Holmes. Holmes uses various advanced scientific methods to establish facts in the cases he investigates. For example, he does ballistics, fingerprinting, and blood testing experiments. He is a leading authority on tobacco ash analysis and analyzes handwriting samples, poisons, trace evidence, and footprints. He even does profiling. Although they did exist during Doyle’s time, few of these technologies were commonly used by law enforcement. In Holmes, Doyle created the very model of the forensic scientist, who is so appealing and authentic that many subsequent characters have been patterned on him. Some writers have even made Doyle himself a prominent character in their fiction, as Mark Frost does in The List of Seven (1993), conferring on the fictional Doyle the same personality traits and drives that the author gave Holmes.

Forensic Science in Hard-Boiled Fiction

The early twentieth century saw the use of forensic science in mystery fiction in a more macabre and sardonic fashion. In earlier mystery fiction, forensic science was looked upon with skepticism until it could demonstrate its usefulness in uncovering truths. The turn of the century heralded a more cynical view, one in which detectives' motivations were not as transparent or altruistic. The new hard-boiled detectives often employ elements of forensic science, but not always to reveal truths and solve crimes. They sometimes put their scientific expertise to work to cover up crimes, misdirect law enforcement, or protect their own interests.

Dashiell Hammett, a writer whose name is almost synonymous with hard-boiled detective stories, is best known for his Sam Spade stories, including The Maltese Falcon (1929-1930), which was made into a classic film with Humphrey Bogart. However, he also wrote several novels about another private investigator, one known only by the Continental Op. One of his Op novels, Red Harvest (1927-1928), extensively uses elements of forensic science. Characteristic of Hammett’s other writings, it is gritty and violent, with a morbidly clinical description of the Op’s waking up to find a corpse in his bed:

Not much blood was in sight: a spot the size of a silver dollar around the hole the ice pick made in her blue silk dress. There was a bruise on her right cheek, just under the cheek bone. Another bruise, finger-made, was on her right wrist. Her hands were empty. I moved her enough to see that nothing was under her.

Ironically, the unemotional starkness of the Op’s observations is contrasted by his attempts to cover up the evidence and use it as a tool for deception.

is another writer whose name is closely associated with hard-boiled detective fiction. He also wrote spare, austere depictions of crime scenes in his Philip Marlowe novels, which appeared in 1939. Despite his books’ clinically correct descriptions, which are often narrated in his detective’s voice, his use of scientific observations almost seems to mock forensic science because of Marlowe’s disdain for the law and its often corrupt officers. More constructive depictions of forensic science began appearing in later works by other authors, whose protagonists were typically well-respected and exceptionally competent lawyers and detectives who applied forensic science cleverly—much like magicians pulling rabbits out of hats.

used forensic science elements throughout her prolific writing career, but nowhere more notably than in her 1934 novel Murder on the Orient Express. In that novel, the fastidious and eagle-eyed detective, Hercule Poirot, investigates the murder of a rich passenger on the train. He finds many clues, but individual clues point to thirteen other passengers on the train, and no two of the clues point to the same person. The complex and baffling case seems insoluble, but Poirot eventually establishes that the murder is connected to the kidnap and murder of a young heiress years earlier. Indeed, the murdered man on the train was the kidnapper and murderer of that young girl. He also concludes that all thirteen suspects on the train have suffered due to that deep-rooted crime. Despite these conclusions, the murder on the Orient Express goes unresolved in the interest of justice.

Erle Stanley Gardner wrote more than eighty mysteries about Perry Mason, a defense attorney who never loses a case, thanks to his legal prowess and his use of forensic science in his investigations. Forensic science plays an important role in Gardner’s formulaic plots. In The Case of the Amorous Aunt (1963), for example, Gardner wrote that

the arch-enemy of the murderer is the autopsy . . . In cold-blooded crimes committed by an intellectual and scheming murderer who has greed or revenge as his goal, the medical examiner, following clues which would never be apparent to a less thoroughly trained individual, can establish the truth.

Since Gardner’s time, forensic science has played an increasingly prominent role in mystery fiction, particularly in straight detective stories and police procedurals.

Forensic Science in the News and on Television

Toward the end of the twentieth century, mystery writers began building their plots around forensic scientists themselves. In many stories, lines between real-life cases and fiction are blurred, as authors have looked to crime news to get their plots. True crime stories have always captured the public’s interest, but their popularity in docuseries, podcasts, and documentaries soared at the end of the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Events such as the murder trial of former football star O. J. Simpson, the unsolved murder of six-year-old beauty queen JonBenet Ramsey, the disappearance of the pregnant California woman Laci Peterson, the disappearance of three-year-old Madeleine McCann, and the mysterious death of Gabby Petito whetted the public’s appetite for more information about the forensic sciences.

Television has played an important role in the popularization of the forensic sciences. The trend started in 1976, when a dramatic series titled Quincy, M.E. began its seven-year run on television. That program, in which actor Jack Klugman played a strong-willed medical examiner named Quincy, strove for dramatic effect, not realism. In a typical episode, Klugman would examine the body of a person believed to have died from natural causes, find evidence of foul play, and then proceed to solve a murder case. The early twenty-first century saw a profusion of more realistic television programs focusing on forensic sciences whose very titles describe their content: Profiler (1996-2000), CSI: Crime Scene Investigation (2000-2015), CSI: Miami (2002-2012), and CSI: New York (2004-2013), NCIS (Naval Criminal Investigation Service; 2003- ), Without a Trace (2002-2009), Criminal Minds (2005- ), Bones (2005-2017), and Dexter (2006- ).

Shows such as these have changed public perceptions of what forensic science can do in real life—a phenomenon dubbed the “CSI effect.” The change has had such an impact on the criminal justice system process that judges have had to give juries special instructions about what constitutes acceptable evidence to modify their expectations.

Forensic Scientists as Protagonists in Fiction

Although forensic science has played a role in mystery fiction for more than a century and a half, it is only since the late twentieth century that it has moved to center stage in the creation of primary characters who are professional forensic scientists. Indeed, what has been called forensic mysteries may be the fastest-growing subgenre in mystery fiction. Many of these new leading characters are medical examiners, coroners, and forensic pathologists, but there are also numerous mysteries featuring forensic geologists, forensic psychologists, and even forensic hematologists and forensic sculptors. Although depictions of the techniques used in the forensic sciences in mystery fiction have evolved, descriptions still tend to be painstakingly detailed and morbid in their objectivity.

People have long had a fascination with the mysteries of human bodies and what happens to them when they are victims of violent crimes. Interest in the role of science in mystery fiction was made more prominent with the popularity of medical thrillers, which may have been the harbinger of the more pronounced role that forensic science later assumed in mystery fiction. Similar elements can be found in both specialized genres. Protagonists in medical mysteries are generally medical professionals, and their stories are typically centered around hospitals or medical facilities. Robin Cook, Michael Palmer, and brought medical mysteries into eminence: Cook’s Coma (1977) and Crichton’s The Andromeda Strain (1969) captured the public’s imagination, even on the big screen.

Ann Benson, Leah Ruth Robinson, and Tess Gerritsen have cast physicians as their protagonists, while Eileen Dreyer has written numerous novels about trauma and forensic nurses. Benson’s novels tend to be more epic, both in their crises and settings. She regularly weaves together plots set in fourteenth-century Europe and twenty-first-century America to describe mysteries surrounding plagues and struggles against bioterrorism. Robinson, Gerritsen, and Dreyer all focus on more contemporary settings and more immediate concerns involving serial killers in efforts to make life-and-death struggles to find the truth more personal.

Coroners, medical examiners, and forensic pathologists have become popular characters in fiction and on the screen. People in these occupations share an interest in establishing causes of death, but there are important differences among their professions. Usually elected or appointed officials, coroners may have medical credentials, but their positions tend to be political. Their primary function is generally to hold inquests to determine whether deaths have resulted from natural causes, accidents, or violent acts. Medical examiner positions are appointed and require medical degrees, but not necessarily degrees in pathology. Medical examiners use their medical training to investigate deaths that have occurred under unusual or suspicious circumstances. They also perform postmortem examinations and initiate inquests into the cause of death. Forensic pathologists are medical doctors, but also have specialized training in forensic science. They participate in death scene investigations and laboratory analysis of evidence and often serve as expert witnesses in criminal and civil law proceedings.

The best-known contemporary author of forensic mysteries is Patricia Cornwell, the author of twenty-nine New York Times best-selling novels about the fictional chief medical examiner for the state of Virginia, Kay Scarpetta. Although Cornwell has established herself as the standard to whom other authors of forensic mysteries are compared, she is neither a forensic pathologist nor a physician. All the legal and medical details she puts in her novels come to her through her research and her consultations with experts in the field. While her characters are solid and straightforward, her plots are twisted and sensational. Benton Wesley, a longstanding character in her books who is Scarpetta's love interest, is a professional profiler who helps Scarpetta find maniacally creative killers. In Point of Origin (1998), Wesley is killed by a serial killer who mutilates his victims and removes their faces to keep them as trophies. However, in Blow Fly (2003), Cornwell reveals he is not dead, but hiding in witness protection. He returns as a character beginning in Book of the Dead (2007). Scarpetta and Wesley's mysteries continued in Chaos (2016), Livid (2022), Unnatural Death (2023), and Identity Unknown (2024).

The USA Today best-selling author Leonard S. Goldberg created the character Joanna Blalock, a forensic pathologist working in Los Angeles. Throughout Goldberg’s nine-novel series, Blalock faces a number of conspiracies and villains, such as megalith corporations, corrupt hospital administrators, and terrorist organizations that use such weapons as an Ebola-like virus, organ harvesting, and good old-fashioned blunt instruments to achieve their aims. The Blalock novels include Deadly Medicine (1992), Lethal Measures (2000), and Fever Cell (2003). Another Goldberg series, Daughter of Sherlock Holmes, features forensic pathologist Joanna Blalock, the daughter of Sherlock Holmes and Irene Adler. Blalock's story begins in The Daughter of Sherlock Holmes (2017) and continues with several subsequent novels, including The Wayward Prince (2023). Robert Walker is another author with a talent for creating maniacal killers with gruesome creative urges and making life difficult for forensic pathologist Jessica Coran in his series Instinct. Coran investigates deaths that include torture by gangrene, crucifixion, and harvesting of brains, hearts, and spines in Killer Instinct (1992), The Edge of Instinct (2013), and True Instinct (2020). also writes about a forensic pathologist, Andy Broussard, and a novice forensic psychologist named Kit Franklyn, who practice in New Orleans. His plots tend to be secondary to character development, with the city of New Orleans playing as important a role as his forensic scientists. Broussard and Franklyn are featured in the long-running series, which includes Cajun Nights (1988), Bad Karma In the Big Easy (2015), and Assassination at Bayou Sauvage (2017).

Forensic Anthropologists

Forensic anthropologists analyze skeletal remains for purposes of identification and investigation of legal questions. They tend to focus on osteological evidence, and their preference for bones, and consequent aversion to softer tissue, is alluded to in several mystery novels, including those of and Dr. Kathy Reichs. In 1982, Elkins introduced forensic anthropologist Gideon Oliver in Fellowship of Fear. The series reached eighteen titles, including the Edgar Award-winning Old Bones (1987), the Agatha Award-nominated Make No Bones (2016), and Switcheroo (2016). It also inspired a short-lived television series, Gideon Oliver (1989), starring Lou Gossett, Jr. Popularly known as the “Bone Detective,” Oliver is also a university professor who travels throughout the world and demonstrates his considerable knowledge about skeletal cuts, osteological growth, and environmental impacts on bones.

Dr. Kathy Reichs, a forensic anthropologist, professor, and crime writer, is sometimes called the “next Patricia Cornwell.” She introduced her own forensic anthropologist, Temperance Brennan, in Déjà Dead in 1997 and averaged nearly one new book a year for over twenty years. The first in the series, New York Times Best Seller Déjà Dead, won the Arthur Ellis Award's Best First Novel. The series continued with Bones to Ashes (2007), Spider Bones (2010), Speaking in Bones (2015), A Conspiracy of Bones (2020), The Bone Hacker (2023), and Fire and Bones (2024).

Brennan and Cornwell’s Kay Scarpetta are in different fields but otherwise have much in common. Scarpetta is a medical examiner in Virginia, while Brennan is a forensic anthropologist who splits her time between North Carolina and Montreal. The problems Reichs creates to challenge Brennan’s knowledge and skills are varied and imaginative, and Brennan gained a wider following when her stories were adapted to television in the Fox series Bones, which debuted in 2005.

Beverly Connor created two series about forensic anthropologists. There are marked differences between her two series characters, Lindsey Chamberlain and Diane Fallon. Chamberlain is both an archaeologist and a forensic anthropologist who specializes in Native Americans of the Southeast. The five-book Chamberlain series began with A Rumor Of Bones (1996) and ended in 2005 with Airtight Case. Fallon is a museum director and human rights investigator whose story begins in One Grave Too Many (2004) and ends with One Grave Less (2010). Sharyn McCrumb also has a popular series about Elizabeth MacPherson, a forensic anthropologist who appears in such colorfully titled books as PMS Outlaws (2000) and If I’d Killed Him When I Met Him (1995).

Forensic Psychologists and Profilers

Forensic psychology and forensic psychiatry are similar specialties whose differences parallel those of their parent professions. Psychiatrists have medical degrees with specialized training and are licensed. Psychologists hold doctoral degrees and may also be licensed. Profilers may or may not have similar credentials; their focus is on creating psychological descriptions, or profiles, of criminal wrongdoers, based on evidence collected in investigations of criminal incidents. James Patterson’s forensic psychologist, Alex Cross, is a former detective for the Washington, D.C., police who now works for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) as a senior agent and profiler. Introduced in Along Came a Spider (1993), Cross's investigations take him all over the United States to track down serial killers and kidnappers. This extensive novel series is composed of over thirty novels, including Triple Cross (2022), Cross Down (2023), and The House of Cross (2024).

In Thomas Harris’s sensational 1988 novel The Silence of the Lambs, Clarice Starling, an FBI agent in training, is assigned to ask convicted serial killer Hannibal Lecter for assistance in profiling and catching another serial killer. A doctor of psychiatry, Lecter is a talented profiler himself. He uses his profiling skills to assist the FBI, but only after profiling Starling for his own gratification. Starling is also the protagonist in Harris's 1999 novel Hannibal.

Caleb Carr’s novels marry science fiction to psychological mystery. The 1995 Anthony Award winner for Best First Novel, The Alienist (1994), features Commissioner Lazzlo Kreisler, a late-nineteenth-century psychologist who diagnoses, profiles, and treats the severely “alienated,” or criminally insane individuals. In this novel and its successors, The Angel of Darkness (1997) and Surrender (2016), Carr creates an alternative history and psychological thriller, with Teddy Roosevelt playing a police commissioner and appearances by other historical figures, such as and Clarence Darrow.

Jonathan Kellerman’s popular clinical psychologist, Alex Delaware, regularly acts as a police consultant, assisting with victim counseling, witness statements, and profiling. Delaware counsels victims and examines crime scenes, looking for motives and details that might lead to the identities of the criminals. Kellerman's Alex Delaware series began in 1985 with When the Bough Breaks, and continued with more than thirty-five additional novels, including The Museum of Desire (2020), City of the Dead (2022), and The Ghost Orchid (2024). Kellerman focuses on victimology and motives in many of his works, but in ways that humanize the victims. Kellerman’s wife, Faye Kellerman, also writes mysteries with elements of forensic science, but her primary characters are homicide detectives.

Forensic Science in Contemporary Fiction

The use of forensic science in mystery fiction has become so common that it has become a subgenre in its own right. As such, it has developed characteristics and conventions of its own. One of its most common characteristics is clinical and often gruesomely detailed descriptions of murder scenes. Such graphic representations of the results of violence were present in the earliest mystery fiction, from Poe to Doyle, and are commonplace in the works of modern authors. However, writers of forensic mysteries tend to use exotic and sensational modes of death and convoluted motives more than other mystery writers.

Fictional forensic scientists are often portrayed as intellectuals who are firmly entrenched in observation and hard facts, a trait that may handicap their personal relations and cause others to see them as detached or cold-blooded. As a matter of course, these scientists are interested in technology and new methods, particularly within their own fields. Moreover, they often have an obsessive commitment to finding and revealing the truth.

In stories with forensic scientists as their main characters, the protagonists often step outside the boundaries of their positions and professions by acting as detectives themselves—something that rarely happens in real life. As a consequence of their expanded roles, fictional forensic scientists often have direct and even violent confrontations with the criminals. In real life, the only times forensic scientists are likely to get near perpetrators are in courtrooms, when they testify. Despite such literary liberties, casting forensic scientists in secondary roles has the value of holding up a mirror to the concept of forensic science as a discipline and the value that it has to the legal process. P. D. James even casts a forensic scientist as the victim in Death of an Expert Witness (1977). Phillip Margolin goes even further in Proof Positive (2006) by having his forensic expert play the story’s murderer and using his professional expertise to manufacture false evidence to cover his tracks.

To write modern forensic science mystery novels, authors must maintain an understanding of the most recent techniques, technology, science, and credentials in forensic science. Also, having an understanding of the legal implications of particular forensic findings may inform plot or character development. As the field changes, so, too, must literature.

A final characteristic of forensic mysteries is their tendency to fictionalize true crimes and borrow elements from real cases. In an interview, Kathy Reichs admitted that she maintained a box for each of her novels in which she collected information on real cases on which she drew for her books. This practice of using “cases ripped from the headlines” or basing plots on real-life investigations is not uncommon. However, in reality, forensic science does not always achieve satisfactory conclusions, while in mystery fiction, the scientific evidence is often the pivotal point to acquit innocent persons charged with crimes or to ensnare or unmask the true criminals at the climax, so that justice is served in the end.

Bibliography

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