Hindi literature

Hindi literature is a genre that originated in India and is written in the Hindi language. It is divided into four periods: Adikal when poetry was produced that highlighted religious ideologies and heroic deeds; Bhaktikal when much religious devotional poetry was created; Ritikal when works that resembled Sanskrit poems were written; and Adhunikaal, which is known for the switch to the Khariboli dialect in writing. During this period, poetry portrayed social, political, and economic problems. However, modern critics contend that Hindi literature lost this spirit of speaking out against the establishment after Indian independence was won from Britain in 1947.

Several contemporary Hindi writers contribute to the genre. Geetanjali Shree gained international fame for his novel Tomb of Sand, which was awarded the International Booker Prize in 2022. It was the first Hindi work ever nominated for this award and the first in any Indian language to win. Other important twenty-first-century writers are Chitra Mudgal, Mridula Garg, Nasira Sharma, Mamta Kalia, and Indian-born American Usha Priyamwada.

Brief history

The Hindi language developed in India and is a direct descendant of Sanskrit. Hindi has been influenced by several other languages including Farsi, English, Arabic, and Portuguese. It became the official language of India on January 26, 1965. The language started being used in writing in the fourth century and was originally written in the Brahmi script. Starting in the eleventh century, it has been written with the Devanagari alphabet, which is common to several other Indian languages. The first printed book in Hindi was John Gilchrist's Grammar of the Hindustanee Language.

Adikal Period

The Adikal Period, also called the Early Period, began in the mid-tenth century and stretched to the beginning of the fourteen century. During this time, Hindi literature, which was mostly poetry, served two functions: It highlighted certain religious ideologies or praised heroic deeds of the Rajput rulers and warriors through verse-narratives known as raso-kavyas. The earliest known work of this period is the Apabhramsha poetry. This includes Siddha literature, Nath literature, and Jain literature. Siddha literature, which was created from 750–200 CE, was written in the popular language. Poet Gorakhnath and his followers created Nath literature between 600–900 CE. Jain poets of the Adikal Period wrote Charit Kavyas, which includes portrayals of nature and advanced moral principles. Heroic poetry of the time includes Chand Bardai’s "Prithviraj Raso" Dalpativijay’s "Khuman Raso" Narpati Nalha's "Visaldev Raso" and Jagnik's "Parmal Raso."

Bhaktikal Period

The Bhaktikal Period, also called the Devotional Period, between the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries saw a rise in devotional poetry known as Bhakti Kavyas. Devotional poetry is divided into two categories, depending on the attitudes of the individual poets: Nirguna and Saguna. The Nirgunas believed in a formless god while the Sagunas believed in a human incarnation of god. Nirgunas were further divided into two categories depending on the disciplines they followed: The Nirguna School and the Sufis. Kabir was the most important poet of the Nirguna School. He and others such as Guru Nanak, Dharma Das, Maluk Das, Dadudayal, and Sunder Das emphasized the importance of knowledge for the realization of God and were referred to as the "saint poets." They rallied for monotheism through Sakhis (couplets) and Padas (songs). Another group of Nirguna poets called the Sufis believed that love was the path to realizing God. The leaders of this school of thought were Jayasi, Manjhan, Kutuban, and Usman. Saguna poets followed either Lord Rama or Lord Krishna. One of the great Sagunas was Mirabai, who sang of her love to Krishna, her "true husband." The Devotional Period is referred to as the golden age of Hindi poetry.

Ritikal Period

The Ritikal, or the Scholastic Period, lasted from 1600 to 1850 CE. Works created during this time resembled Sanskrit poems. Some of the leading poets of this period were Chintamani Tripathi, Mati Ram, Keshavadasa, Deva, Kulpati Misra and Bhikari Das, who followed the Ritibaddha tradition, which stressed the importance of rhetoric, or persuasive writing. Another group of writers, which included Ghanananda, Bodha, and Thakur, followed the Ritimukha tradition, which was free of rhetorical conventions. Poets following this tradition were known for writing spontaneously, depicting powerful feelings of love.

Adhunikaal Period

The Adhunikaal, or Modern Period, began in the mid-nineteenth century. This period is known for the evolution of Khariboli (a Hindi dialect) prose and the use of Khariboli in place of Brajbhasha (another Hindi dialect). It is also known for poetry that portrayed social, political, and economic problems.

The Adhunikaal period is divided into four phases: the age of Bharatendu or the Renaissance (1868–1893); Dwivedi Yug (1893–1918); Chhayavada Yug (1918–1937). Bharatendu Harishchandra is an important author from this time and is known as the "Father of Modern Hindi Literature." Another writer, Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, is considered the creator of modern Hindi prose.

Hindi Literature Today

Although many younger citizens of India do not speak or read in Hindi, the Hindi literary scene continues to evolve with contemporary writers. Indian author Geetanjali Shree’s Hindi novel Tomb of Sand (2018) was the first book in any Indian language to be awarded the International Booker Prize and the first Hindi novel to have been nominated for the prize. The prize helps introduce authors who may be unfamiliar to English-language readers. The book, originally named Ret Samadhi, is set in northern India. It tells the story of an eighty-year-old woman named Ma who travels to Pakistan after the death of her husband. Along the way, she deals with her new grief and the past trauma of coming of age during the division of India and Pakistan.

Mridula Garg is another important contemporary Hindi writer. Garg, who also writes in English, has published more than thirty books in Hindi, including novels, short story collections, plays, and essays. In 2013 she won the prestigious Sahitya Akademi Award. Chitra Mudgal is one of the leading literary figures of modern Hindi literature. Born in 1943, she was the first Indian woman to receive the Vyas Samman literary award for her novel Avaan. She was also the recipient of the Sahitya Akademi Award in 2019. Other notable contemporary writers in Hindi are Nasira Sharma, Mamta Kalia and Indian-born American Usha Priyamwada.

Modern Hindi literature was born during the Indian independence movement, which ultimately ended British rule in the country. The literary works published during this time were idealistic and anti-establishment. Hindi writers befriended important national leaders and helped form a national identity. After India became independent, the tone of political writing changed, according to Akhilesh, a writer who edits an influential literary journal called Tadbhav. The literature was unable to carry significant critique of contemporary politics as it was influenced by Nehruvian values (Jawarharlal Nehru was an Indian anti-colonialist and prime minister of India from 1957 to 1964). Ashutosh Bhardwaj, writing for Outlook India, decried the continued lack of resistance against the ruling regime among Hindi writers today. For example, Hindu writers often complain about being cheated by their publishers but do nothing about it. An exception is author Vinod Kumar Shukla, who demanded the withdrawal of his books from publishers who he said were cheating him. Surprisingly, many Hindi writers sided with publishers after Shukla’s announcement, with some blaming Shukla himself.

Prassana Sawant, writing for The Curious Reader, notes another challenge facing Hindi literature—it continues to lag behind English literature in the number of on-screen adaptations in Indian productions. During the independence movement and right after, Hindi literature flourished with authors such as Kamleshwar, Munshi Premchand and Bhisham Sahni publishing work. Films such as Chitralekha, Kati Patang and Pati Patni Aur Woh were adapted from Hindi literature during that time. Authors then wrote about a variety of hard-hitting issues such as discrimination, poverty, and inequality. With the rise of English in India in the following years, this changed as younger people chose English over Hindi as their primary language. English is the prime language in Bollywood, and many filmmakers do not read books in Indian languages. As a result, it is easier for a book written in English to be adapted into film.

Bibliography

Bhardwaj, Ashutosh. "Hindi Diwas: How Hindi Literature Failed the Saffron Challenge." Outlook India, 14 Sept. 2022, www.outlookindia.com/magazine/national/how-hindi-literature-stopped-being-a-chronicler-of-the-times-magazine-187238. Accessed 28 Nov. 2022.

"Five Contemporary Hindi Writers from India That You Must Read." Outlook India, 27 May 2022, www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/five-contemporary-hindi-writers-from-india-that-you-must-read-news-198874. Accessed 28 Nov. 2022.

"Hindi Language." Indian Mirror, 2022, www.indianmirror.com/languages/hindi-language.html. Accessed 28 Nov. 2022.

"Hindi Literature." Culturopedia: Articles of India, 2022, www.culturopedia.com/hindi-literature/. Accessed 28 Nov. 2022.

Jain, Devanshi. "A Roadmap for Reading Hindi Literature." The Curious Reader, 10 Jan. 2019, www.thecuriousreader.in/features/roadmap-hindi-literature/. Accessed 28 Nov. 2022.

"Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964)." BBC, 2014, www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic‗figures/nehru‗jawaharlal.shtml. Accessed 28 Nov. 2022.

Recker, Jane. "For the First Time, a Hindi Author Has Won the International Booker Prize." Smithsonian Magazine, 31 May 2022, www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/a-hindi-author-wins-the-international-booker-prize-for-the-first-time-180980162/. Accessed 28 Nov. 2022.

Sawant, Prassana. "Where Is Hindi Literature When It Comes to Screen Adaptations." The Curious Reader, 8 Jan. 2020, www.thecuriousreader.in/features/hindi-literature/. Accessed 28 Nov. 2022.