A History of God by Karen Armstrong
"A History of God" by Karen Armstrong presents an exploration of humanity's quest for understanding the divine across cultures and eras, particularly focusing on the transformative period known as the Axial Age (800-200 BCE). During this time, emerging middle classes in civilizations across India, Greece, and the Middle East began to shift their focus from external rituals to internal reflection, emphasizing personal accountability and moral integrity. Armstrong highlights the evolution of the concept of God, examining how figures like the Hebrew prophet Isaiah advocated for a deeper understanding of God through compassion rather than mere ritualistic practices.
As the text progresses, it details the intersection of Judaic and Hellenistic thought, particularly in the context of early Christianity, which emerged in an era of Roman dominance. It underscores the role of Jesus as a pivotal figure who connected diverse populations under a shared spiritual pursuit, while also addressing the complexities of reconciling monotheism with the notion of the Trinity. Armstrong discusses the influence of Saint Augustine in shaping Christian moral philosophy and the ongoing reevaluation of faith throughout subsequent historical movements, including the Renaissance and Enlightenment.
Ultimately, Armstrong argues that the human desire for meaning and connection with a higher truth remains a driving force in spirituality, prompting individuals and communities to navigate their beliefs amid an increasingly secular world. She emphasizes the importance of compassion and tolerance, warning against the dangers of literal interpretations of scripture that can lead to divisiveness. Through this lens, the text invites readers to reflect on their own spiritual journeys and the intricate relationship between self-knowledge and understanding the divine.
A History of God by Karen Armstrong
First published: New York: Ballantine Books, 1993
Genre(s): Nonfiction
Subgenre(s): Biblical studies; church history; history; philosophy; theology
Core issue(s): Compassion; connectedness; God; reason; union with God
Christian Themes
In A History of God, Karen Armstrong, a former Catholic nun turned comparative religion scholar, identifies a time in late antiquity called the Axial Age as a period when the quest for God-knowledge took a turn inward. The Axial Age occurred during the years 800-200 b.c.e., a pivotal time when the civilized cultures of India, Greece, and the Middle East developed new ways of thinking in response to the changing economic and social climates of their regions. Wealth and power shifted from kings and priests to the merchant middle class. The physical comforts of prosperity allowed the middle class to educate themselves and become more introspective. Inward reflection grew into conscience, fertile ground for an awareness of personal accountability for one’s actions and their impact on society at large. The concept of right living grew out of this new inwardness within and across these very different cultures in similar ways, despite their isolation from one another.
In the Middle East, the Hebrew prophet Isaiah conceived a reformed idea of Yahweh after a traumatic visitation by a deity that resembled the God of Moses and Abraham, but with a darker, moodier tone and a plea that his people practice their faith through action rather than ritual. His message warned that the Israelites would be cast out of Judah as punishment, and only hardship lay ahead. Not only did Yahweh despair of the Israelites practicing pagan rituals and sacrifice along with temple prayer to the One God (an accepted form of Jewish worship for ages); Isaiah also insisted that a deeper understanding of God could come only in the form of compassion toward others.
While the Israelites contemplated this shift from atmospheric pageantry to well-considered moral action, a chasm was forming in Judaic thought between the Hellenistic wisdom philosophies of Plato and Aristotle among Greek Jews and the revelations of the biblical Prophets among Palestinian Jews. How can one come to know God? Each discipline required a learned seeker schooled in philosophy or mysticism. However, epistemological debate concerned the upper classes only; the lower classes took the easier path of performing myth-based rituals of the past. Though the standard model of a pious Jew was still predicated on his fear of the remote God of revelation, Greek thought, such as Plato’s idealism, expressed in his allegory of the cave—a metaphorical darkness of the physical world out of which humanity can climb and seek the light of wisdom—ultimately took root in Palestinian Judaism.
Jesus, an ascetic born at the end of the Axial Age, offered a new way of knowing God, for Jews and Gentiles alike, that resonated strongly with Isaiah’s revelation that compassion would bring one closer to God. Though some followers immediately identified Jesus as the Messiah, he was not portrayed as an incarnation of God until the church fathers composed the Nicene Creed in the fourth century c.e. By that time, Judaism had abandoned pagan rituals and become exclusively monotheistic, while early Christians distinguished Jesus as the definitive link between God and humanity.
In an era of Roman domination and brutality, the uniquely Christian practice of accepting people of diverse backgrounds and philosophies drew disillusioned pagans from Europe and the Middle East. One did not need to be born into Christianity, merely baptized and accepting of the Sacraments. This tolerance and progressivism illustrate Armstrong’s thesis that cultures form new ideas within the context of their quality of daily life and leadership. Against the backdrop of Roman intolerance and self-gratification, inward discovery of divine knowledge was an acceptable practice of the Christian movement during the early centuries of the common era. The Jewish god of the Bible and the god of the Greek philosophers were accepted as one and the same—yet Jesus was also considered divine, an incarnation of divine reason. This caused confusion and conflict among intellectuals; the Semitic god of the Prophets manifested a punishing countenance, while the god of the philosophers remained remote and unknowable. Still, how could monotheists reconcile the paradox of one remote, unchanging God with his physical manifestation of holiness in Jesus and vague biblical references to “the spirit?” God, Son, and Spirit seemed distinct and separate yet inextricably linked as aspects of the One God.
The early Christian leader whom Armstrong identifies as the most persuasive, unifying influence in defining the notion of right living is Saint Augustine. Around the fifth century, Augustine’s own painful epiphany occurred during an intensely emotional crisis of faith when he realized that the self-indulgent, physical excesses of Roman culture had replaced God-love with self-love. His own weakness for sex and wine had lured him away from the moral path. Thus he insisted upon the Christian virtues of chastity and asceticism. Imitate Jesus, he insisted, the role model of right living.
In the historical periods that followed, the Renaissance, Reformation, Enlightenment, and modern eras support Armstrong’s thesis that Christian cultures have continuously, often imaginatively, redefined their relationships with God, even going so far as to annihilate him. In his nineteenth century writings, Friedrich Nietzsche effectively killed off God, suggesting that the material power and scientific knowledge of humanity had rendered him obsolete. Armstrong insists, however, it would be wrong to assume that humanity will ever wholly abandon faith in an eternal spiritual source. Wonder, loneliness, and an intuitive desire for meaning are just a few human characteristics driving any belief system, whether grounded in contemplation of eternal truth or the inner self.
Christian Themes
In A History of God, Armstrong is primarily concerned with humanity’s intrinsic longing for connection with a higher truth. A recurring theme in this search is the return to and reexamination of the early teachings of one’s faith. Through this connection, people find both inner solace during hardship and the moral clarity to interact meaningfully with their communities. In an increasingly secular world, Armstrong believes, Christians will always reevaluate the meaningfulness of ritual and tradition. As science makes sense of the external world and of the internal mechanisms of our behaviors and yearnings, we reach for more answers to the mysteries of life and eternal truth that extend beyond the limits of human discovery, continually harking back to the spiritual wisdom of ancient scripture.
When referring back to the origins of Christian thought, Armstrong warns that the drawback of Jesus worship among fundamentalists and their literal interpretation of scripture can become a dangerous form of idolatry if it is driven by fear and ignorance. If, she suggests, a Christian condemns a Muslim to eternal damnation because Jesus is not his prophet of choice, then the messenger has been woefully recast as the message. The human redeemer can, however, be a healthy and vital component of spiritual devotion. A purely abstract notion of eternal truth can leave one feeling disconnected and alone without human avatars bridging the abyss between physical and spiritual reality. They remind their communities to reflect upon the undefined mysteries of existence and to preserve the ethos of good will in their daily lives.
The complex need for meaning and connection necessitates constant revision of how a culture undertakes to do good, to identify social leaders who speak to that need and to the times, and to reawaken the virtues of compassion and tolerance. Armstrong identifies the common thread running through the fabric of historical spiritual development as the quest for self-knowledge. To know God and know good, one must first know the inner self.
Sources for Further Study
Armstrong, Karen. The Great Transformation: The Beginning of Our Religious Traditions. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006. Supplement to A History of God. Armstrong warns that our interpretation of early doctrine is erroneously dogmatic, since scripture emphasizes compassion and repudiates hatred and intolerance.
Armstrong, Karen. The Spiral Staircase: My Climb Out of Darkness. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. Armstrong’s memoir describing her psychological struggles following her departure from religious life in 1969 after spending nine years as a Roman Catholic nun.
Armstrong, Karen. Visions of God: Four Medieval Mystics and Their Writings. New York: Bantam, 1994. Armstrong’s translation and interpretation of the imaginative, highly personal and thoughtful writings of four fourteenth century English mystics who heavily influenced Western mystical tradition.