I, Claudius by Robert Graves
"I, Claudius" is a historical novel by Robert Graves that presents a fictionalized autobiography of the Roman Emperor Claudius. Set against the backdrop of ancient Rome, the narrative explores Claudius's life from his early years marked by physical disabilities and familial shame to his unexpected rise to power. As a scholar in a society that glorifies military prowess, Claudius becomes an astute observer of the political intrigues surrounding him, particularly those involving his ruthless relatives, including his grandmother Livia and uncle Tiberius.
The novel delves into themes of cruelty, ambition, and the complexities of power as Claudius narrates the machinations that lead to the deaths of many significant figures, including Germanicus, and the eventual ascension of Caligula. Through his scholarly lens, Claudius seeks to reveal the truth behind the legends and horrors of his time, illustrating the often brutal nature of Roman politics. Graves's work is noted for its detailed character studies and rich historical context, making it a compelling exploration of one of history's more complex emperors. The story culminates in Claudius's unexpected elevation to the throne, bringing to light the paradox of his perceived weakness becoming a source of strength in a tumultuous political landscape.
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I, Claudius by Robert Graves
First published: 1934
Type of work: Novel
Type of plot: Historical
Time of plot: 10 b.c.e.-41 c.e.
Locale: Rome
Principal characters
Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus , the emperor of Rome after CaligulaAugustus Caesar , the first emperor of RomeLivia , his wife and Claudius’s grandmotherJulia , the daughter of Livia and AugustusTiberius , Claudius’s uncle and successor to AugustusGermanicus , Claudius’s brotherCaligula , Germanicus’s son and successor to TiberiusUrgulanilla , Claudius’s detested wifePostumus , Augustus’s banished sonAgrippina , Germanicus’s wifeSejanus , a friend of TiberiusAelia , Sejanus’s sister by adoption and Claudius’s second wifeMacro , the commander of the guardsMessalina , Claudius’s third wifeCalpurnia , Claudius’s only true friend
The Story:
Claudius, the emperor of Rome, is held in little esteem because he is lame and he stammers. He is, moreover, a scholar in a nation that worships soldiering. He compiles state histories, but he realizes that they are dull, sententious drivel. At last, he decides to tell the true story of his own life. As the source of his inspiration, he cites the Cumaean Sibyl whom he visited in her inner cavern. She said that eventually he would speak clearly.
From the beginning, the Claudian family feels ashamed of young Claudius, who seems unlikely to carry on the family tradition of power. He develops, for that reason, into a scholarly person interested in the lives of others. His teachers tell him stories about famous people, and as he matures he picks up stray scraps of knowledge about them from various sources.
He is greatly interested in his grandmother, the Empress Livia. Bored with her husband, she secured a divorce, arranged her own marriage with the Emperor Augustus, and poisoned thereafter anyone who interfered with her plans. Power was her sole delight. Another of the infamous people about him is Tiberius, for years the official successor of Augustus. Son of Livia by an early marriage, he married the wanton Julia, daughter of Livia and Augustus. Tiberius offended Augustus and was banished. Livia then insisted that Julia be banished as well. Tired of his banishment, Tiberius promised that if Livia would secure his return he would agree with her every wish thereafter. About that time, the two sons of Julia and Tiberius died mysteriously.
Between Claudius’s ninth and sixteenth years, he occupies himself with the affairs of his older relatives. He is married early to a girl named Urgulanilla, who detests him as much as he detests her. Claudius’s first love had been mysteriously poisoned, and Claudius suspects Livia, who later forced him to marry Urgulanilla. Claudius’s scholarship and stability eventually bring him into the good graces of Augustus and Livia. They make him a priest of Mars and show, by public displays of interest in him, that he is an accepted member of the imperial family.
A grain shortage causes rioting accompanied by arson. Augustus distributes grain according to the usual custom, banishes people who do not hold property in Rome, and rations what food is available. Livia stages a sword fight in the arena to restore the goodwill of the populace. Because Claudius faints publicly when witnessing the brutal sports, Livia decides that never again will he show his face in public. Soon afterward, the last of Augustus’s sons is banished for life. Tiberius is proclaimed the adopted son and successor of Augustus.
Tiberius and young Germanicus, brother of Claudius, campaign against the barbarians, but Tiberius is unpopular in spite of his victories with the army. Augustus suffers stomach disorders and dies. Claudius knows that about a month before Augustus’s death he decided to restore his banished son Postumus, grant money and honor to Claudius, and replace Tiberius. Claudius suspects Livia of the emperor’s death.
Postumus is reported killed by a captain of the guard that was placed around him. Livia slowly starves Julia to death. Because Germanicus is too honorable to seize the empire from Tiberius, there remains only the proof that Postumus is really dead to make Tiberius safe upon the throne. When Postumus returns to disprove reports of his death, Tiberius has him tortured and killed.
Germanicus continues his successful campaign against the Germans. Tiberius is jealous and insists that Germanicus return to Rome for his triumph. By that time, Livia suspects Claudius and Germanicus of plotting against Tiberius. She sends Claudius to Carthage to dedicate a temple to Augustus, who was deified by the Roman Senate. Germanicus is next dispatched to the east to command the armies there, but Livia and Tiberius begin to fear that Germanicus will win favor in the east as he already did in the west. Germanicus is finally poisoned. His wife, Agrippina, seeks protection from Claudius.
Claudius promises his thirteen-year-old son in marriage to the daughter of Sejanus, the friend of Tiberius. A few days later, his son is found dead. He again suspects Livia. Shortly afterward, a divorce is arranged for Claudius by Sejanus, who is anxious to have Claudius marry Aelia, his sister by adoption. Claudius knows better than to oppose the wills of those in power, and he accepts his new wife with little concern.
Tiberius sets Livia aside. She is now growing old, and he no longer has great reason to fear her. Bitter at the removal of her power, she begins to make plans for his successor. She determines that Caligula, the son of Germanicus, should succeed him. She calls in Claudius to declare a truce on the condition that he will have her declared a goddess after her death. In return, she tells him most of her state secrets; she says that all the murders she planned were committed solely for the good of the state.
Tiberius is sixty-seven years old and seems destined to die soon. He is living on Capri with a court of scholars, doctors, confidants, and entertainers; Sejanus is left in Rome with authority to rule for him. When Livia finally dies at the age of eighty-six, Tiberius refuses to return to Rome even for her funeral. He then begins a reign of terror against all members of Livia’s faction. When Sejanus attempts to rebel against the emperor’s cruel decrees, Tiberius orders his execution. His children are also put to death. Claudius is ordered to divorce Aelia.
At last, the mad Tiberius lies dying at Misenum. Macro, commander of the guards, and Caligula, next in line for the throne, plan to take over the country. Caligula, already infamous among people who know him, is still popular with the Romans. They take command of the army in too great a hurry. Then, learning that Tiberius is still alive, they smother him.
In order to establish himself, Caligula pretends sympathy and generosity, but Claudius writes in his history that Caligula holds the record for infamy among the princes up to that time. He begins by spending the money Tiberius and Livia hoarded for so long. Then he falls ill. When he begins to recover, he announces to Claudius that he was transformed into a god, in fulfillment of the many prophecies that a god is soon to be given to the earth.
Caligula celebrates his godhood by wholesale assassination. Claudius’s mother commits suicide because of Caligula’s infamies. Soon Macro is forced to kill himself. At last, the people begin to turn against Caligula because of levies forced on the populace and because of the indescribable depravities of the palace brothel. Caligula decides to become a general and lead an expedition into Germany. On his return, he forces Claudius to marry his cousin Messalina. Calpurnia, Claudius’s only true friend, is banished. The Romans are now plotting, almost openly, the assassination of Caligula. Before long he is murdered, and Claudius, the retiring scholar, is named the emperor of Rome.
Bibliography
Bloom, Harold, ed. Robert Graves. New York: Chelsea House, 1987. Bloom gathers what he calls the most useful available criticism of Graves. Entries most pertinent to the study of I, Claudius are “Autobiography, Historical Novels, and Some Poems,” by J. M. Cohen, and “Claudius,” by Martin Seymour-Smith.
Canary, Robert H. Robert Graves. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1980. Contains a biography and a thorough discussion of Graves as a poet and prose writer, with one section devoted to I, Claudius and its sequel, Claudius the God and His Wife Messalina.
Firla, Ian, ed. Robert Graves’s Historical Novels. New York: Peter Lang, 2000. A collection of essays focusing on Graves’s historical novels, including discussions of the narrative structure of his novels from the 1930’s and the cultural relativism of his works. Includes bibliography and index.
Graves, Robert. Claudius the God and His Wife Messalina. New York: Smith and Haas, 1935. Reprint. New York: Vantage Books, 1989. Readers who enjoy I, Claudius will want to continue Claudius’s story with this sequel, which takes up exactly where I, Claudius ends. It covers Claudius’s successful reign as emperor and his death by murder.
Kernowski, Frank L. The Early Poetry of Robert Graves: The Goddess Beckons. University of Texas, 2002. A portrait of Graves and his work that benefits from the author’s interviews with his subject and input from Graves’s daughter.
Quinn, Patrick J., ed. New Perspectives on Robert Graves. Selinsgrove, Pa.: Susquehanna University Press, 1999. A thoughtful, updated volume of essays, including Chris Hopkins’s piece focusing on Graves and the historical novel in the 1930’s. Contains bibliographical references and index.
Seymour-Smith, Martin. Robert Graves: His Life and Work. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1982. A full-length, definitive biography by a friend who knew Graves for more than forty years. Discusses Graves’s interest in ancient history and contains much information about the creation of I, Claudius. Good photographic illustrations.