Idylls by Theocritus of Syracuse

First transcribed: c. 270 b.c.e.?

First published: 1566 (English translation, 1684)

Type of work: Poetry

The Work:

Theocritus is perhaps the originator of the literary genre of pastoral poetry. The Idylls has, therefore, exerted tremendous influence on European literature. The Idylls is a collection of thirty short poems ascribed to Theocritus in antiquity, perhaps incorrectly. Taking its basic inspiration from the yearnings and concerns of Greek shepherds and simple country folk, pastoral poetry is potentially a confining genre. Readers of Theocritus will acknowledge, however, that his poems explore an astonishingly wide variety of themes—love, death, the meaning of art, the joys of life in the country, the nuisances of the city, the mysteries of myth and magic. Part of the explanation for the great diversity of theme and subject matter in the Idylls is to be found in the special character of ancient poetry collections, which frequently included any and all works that might possibly be attributed to a famous name. In fact, some of the poems that are contained in the Idylls are almost certainly the work of imitators of Theocritus.

Little is known about Theocritus beyond occasional hints in his poetry. The dates of his birth and death are not preserved, but he was certainly active in the first quarter of the third century b.c.e. From subtle references in his poetry a tentative biography can be reconstructed. Born in Syracuse, he apparently emigrated from Sicily and spent time in southern Italy, on the Aegean island of Cos, and at the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus in the bustling, cosmopolitan city of Alexandria, Egypt. His poetry seems to suggest connections with all of these places. The pastoral poems are filled with characteristic details of the environs of southern Italy, Sicily, and Cos; those with an urban setting depict life in two great metropolitan centers of the ancient world, Syracuse and Alexandria. Thus, familiarity with very different aspects of life in the ancient Mediterranean world provided Theocritus with rich material for his poetry. This poet’s particular genius is his ability to synthesize these polarities of human existence in a satisfying artistic whole.

“Thyrsis” (idyll 1) clearly illustrates Theocritus’s brilliant ability to combine high art with an atmosphere of rustic charm. The dramatic situation of the poem is a meeting between a shepherd named Thyrsis and an unnamed goatherd. The goatherd urges Thyrsis to sing a song about the legendary Daphnis, for which Thyrsis is widely admired. In return for the song, the goatherd promises a splendid, carved wooden cup, which the goatherd describes in detail. Up to this point, the dramatic circumstances of the poem do not especially tax the credulity of the reader. The image of a lonely herdsman singing songs to pass the time has elements of realism. As the cup is described by the goatherd, the pastoral illusion becomes more fragile. Intricate scenes are depicted on this marvelous drinking cup, and the descriptions invite a symbolic interpretation. Thus, the scene of the woman who is flanked by two suitors may be seen to represent the important role of love and competition in pastoral poetry. Similarly, the boy who weaves a cricket cage while a fox attempts to steal his lunch seems to suggest how artistic creation makes one oblivious of practical considerations. Thyrsis accepts the offer and sings the song of Daphnis, a legendary herdsman who wasted away because of some mysterious unrequited love. Like the scenes on the cup, Daphnis is a symbol for the artistic experience.

“Pharmaceutria” (idyll 2) presents a strong contrast to the circumstances of the first poem. Theocritus offers an urban scene, a dramatic monologue in which a young woman employs magic to regain the affection of her former lover. In the course of her monologue, Simaetha reveals the details of her seduction and abandonment by Delphis. Gradually the reader understands that Simaetha is familiar with magic. As she speaks she is also weaving a spell to make her lover return or, failing that, perhaps punish him for his faithlessness.

Idylls 3 through 6 present variations on a number of bucolic staples: unrequited love, the healing power of art, rural singing contests, the earthy vulgarity of much of rural life. “Serenade” (idyll 3) is another monologue, but this time it is a serenade delivered by a distraught lover at the entrance to a cave where the beautiful Amaryllis lives. Argument, mythological examples, even threats of suicide are invoked to persuade Amaryllis to return his love. In the end no answer is heard from the cave. The singing contests of idylls 4, 5, and 6 may well represent something that Theocritus experienced; however, each contest is highly stylized, employing different structures and different personalities (for example, the hostile competitors in idyll 5 stand in comparison to the friendly pair in idyll 6). It should be noted that, in depicting his rustic herdsmen, Theocritus is less interested in realism than in the learning and the wit his characters can display in these artistic competitions.

“The Harvest-Home” (idyll 7) occupies a special place in the collection, not only because of its excellence but also because Theocritus may be identified with Smichidas, the narrator. Smichidas tells the story of a poet’s journey to a harvest festival. Along the way he and his companions encounter the goatherd-poet Lycidas, with whom the narrator engages in a friendly singing contest to pass the time. The circumstances of this poem have suggested the possibility of further identifications of the characters with some lesser-known members of a poet’s club once located on the island of Cos. When Lycidas presents his staff to Smichidas as a token of friendship and then says good-bye to the group, the reader is inclined to interpret this as a symbolic handing down of a poetic tradition. This beautiful poem ends with a few lines describing the friends’ arrival at their destination and enjoyment of the harvest festival.

Some scholars have argued that the first seven poems of Idylls form an independent unit, a kind of poetry book, complete with intricate internal correspondences and a consistent tone. Later poems were supposedly added to this collection as the poet’s output and fame grew. As if to confirm this conclusion, the next two poems in the collection, idylls 8 and 9, are not by Theocritus. They show the difference between a master’s skill and the student’s attempt to imitate. “The Reapers” (idyll 10), while almost certainly authentic, shows a slightly different focus from the earlier poems. The scene is agricultural, not pastoral. A worker finds that his heart is not in the task at hand, and his friendly encounter with his foreman leads to an amusing variation on a singing contest with the object of curing him of his lovesickness and getting him back to work. This poem and the next underscore another important theme in Theocritus: art as a cure for unrequited love. The medical metaphor is explicit in “Cyclops” (idyll 11), which is actually addressed to a doctor named Nicias. As proof of the healing power of art, Theocritus cites the experience of the Cyclops Polyphemus, who—in this mythological variant—falls hopelessly in love with the beautiful nymph Galatea. Although his love is not returned, the monster soon realizes that the love song he sings acts as a palliative for the pain of unrequited love.

Of the remaining poems in the collection, only a few can be singled out for special mention. “Hylas” (idyll 13) tells of Hercules’ loss of Hylas on the voyage of the Argonauts and his desperate search to find his young companion. Similarly, in “Hymn to the Dioscouri” (idyll 22), Theocritus tells a little-known story from the adventures of the brothers Castor and Polydeuces. In “The Young Heracles” (idyll 24) and “Heracles the Lion-Slayer” (idyll 25), peculiar exploits of the Greek hero form the basis of Theocritus’s narrative. Although the authenticity of some of these works is in doubt, it is clear that poems about mythological tales are a favorite art form of Theocritus and his contemporaries, perhaps because this genre provides a way to introduce mythological subjects on a smaller scale than that of the great heroic epics. A mythological tale of a different sort is the “Wedding Song for Helen” (idyll 18), in which the marriage of young Helen to Menelaus is celebrated in song by the young women of Sparta. Here also there is an attempt to create a work of art that touches only indirectly on the great stories of Greek legend.

Despite these forays into mythological topics, Theocritus excels in those poems that deal with love and the common experiences of ordinary people. “Aeschines and Thyonichus” (idyll 14) treats the theme of unhappy love in a new way by depicting a conversation between two men of the world, one of whom is frustrated in his passion. In a brilliant touch of realism, Thyonichus simply listens to his friend’s vivid story and, with a bland comment, changes the subject. Thyonichus knows from experience how such matters develop and will offer only practical advice should Aeschines wish to terminate the liaison. Realistic depiction of the frustrations of city life seems to be at least one object of “The Women at the Festival of Adonis” (idyll 15). Gorgo and Praxinoa, two women of Alexandria, make preparations to visit the palace of Ptolemy for a celebration of the festival of Adonis. Theocritus depicts their gossip, their frustration as they make their way through a throng of celebrants, and—when they finally arrive—their genuine admiration for the works of art that adorn the palace. In a brief dramatic skit Theocritus beautifully captures the essence of this event in the lives of these two ordinary women.

Theocritus’s ability to make high art out of a moment of ordinary life is the essence of his genius. His primary legacy to later writers was the idea of a pastoral genre. His most brilliant follower was certainly the Roman poet Vergil. Vergil’s pastoral poetry, with its political background and even deeper appreciation of nature, also represents a transformation in the Greek poet’s original concept. Primarily through Vergil, rather than directly from Theocritus, the pastoral genre became the common property of European literature.

Bibliography

Haber, Judith.“Bringing It All Back Home: Bucolic and Heroic in Theocritus’ Idylls.” In Pastoral and the Poetics of Self-Contradiction: Theocritus to Marvell. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Analyzes how Theocritus and other poets have handled the inherent contradictions in the pastoral genre.

Halperin, D. M. Before Pastoral: Theocritus and the Ancient Tradition of Bucolic Poetry. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983. Discussion of the possible antecedents and followers of Theocritus. Useful for understanding the development of the pastoral genre in its earliest form.

Hunter, Richard. “Reflecting on Writing and Culture: Theocritus and the Style of Cultural Change.” In Written Texts and the Rise of Literate Culture in Ancient Greece, edited by Harvey Yunis. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Examines how the reading, writing, and distribution of texts in ancient Greece led to new forms of thought, expression, and behavior. The chapter on Theocritus focuses on the meeting and song exchange of Lycidas and Smichidas in Idyll 7, analyzing how this encounter marked a changing fashion in Greek poetics and culture.

Lawall, Gilbert. Theocritus’ Coan Pastorals: A Poetry Book. Cambridge, Mass.: Center for Hellenic Studies, 1967. Presents a persuasive argument for viewing idylls 1 through 7 as a self-contained poetry book, intended as such by Theocritus. Offers valuable insights into structural and thematic interconnections among these poems.

Payne, Mark. Theocritus and the Invention of Fiction. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Argues that Theocritus’s pastoral poetry was the first literature to create a fully fictional world that is an alternative to reality. Examines ancient and modern concepts of fiction in the work of Theocritus and other writers, with special attention to idyll 7.

Rosenmeyer, Thomas G. The Green Cabinet: Theocritus and the European Pastoral Lyric. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969. Reprint. London: Bristol Classical, 2004. Traces the evolution of the pastoral genre in later European literature. Provides a valuable discussion of the concept of pastoral poetry and its later manifestations.

Segal, Charles. Poetry and Myth in Ancient Pastoral. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981. A collection of interpretative essays that shed light on the poetic qualities of Greek and Roman pastoral poetry. The discussion of some individual poems is invaluable.

Walker, S. F. Theocritus. Boston: Twayne, 1980. Treats the entire canon of Theocritus’s poetry. Highly recommended for the reader interested in a basic introduction to Theocritus.