Indian literature

Indian literature is one of the oldest forms of literature in the world. It encompasses all literature produced on the subcontinent of India, including literature that was written prior to the creation of the Republic of India in 1947, as well as after. Indian literature is represented in each of the country’s nearly two dozen officially recognized languages and dates to an ancient time when stories were delivered orally. Sanskrit literature, the writings of the Aryan people who came to India from the northwest, began in the oral tradition and dates to 1500 BCE. Sanskrit was considered a high-culture language in India and was taught to the upper class or Brahmins. Indian literature includes philosophical and/or religious writing, as well as erotic literature, poetry, plays, and folktales. In the nineteenth century, however, Western influences impacted Indian literature and short stories and novels became of particular interest to Indian writers. Realism also became popular at this time, as did composing in English. After Sanskrit, English is the most common language utilized. Popular themes in Indian literature include bravery, heroic deeds, humanity, love, morality, obedience, and religion. India is surpassed only by the United States and the United Kingdom (UK) in the number of novels published annually.

Brief history

In 2022, India overtook China as the most populated country in the world. India is also one of the most ethnically diverse countries, with many religions, languages, and cultures represented. Home to several tribes and castes, its diversity can be viewed simultaneously as being both positive and negative. For example, the wide array of people provides an environment rich in culture, thus making its literary options plentiful. A negative, however, is the difficulty in creating a national identity, particularly with certain groups, including women; lower levels of the caste system or those previously considered to be untouchables; and other traditionally oppressed members of society. However, political leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru were able to succeed in bringing a sense of unity to the country.

As a peninsula, India is surrounded by water—the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal—on three sides, making it an easy location for trading and external influences. The Himalayan Mountain Range is also attractive to people seeking adventure. Indian literature has been influenced by many factors, especially religion. Outside sources, too, have played a role in shaping Indian authors.

After India gained its independence from the British, its literacy rates were bleak, with more than 80 percent of Indians considered illiterate in 1950. As of 2022, however, that figure has changed dramatically, with roughly 76 percent of its population being literate. What has not necessarily improved is the literacy gender gap. While more than 83 percent of men were considered literate as of 2022, fewer than 69 percent of women could read. A shift to increase primary school enrollment for girls hopes to lessen that gap.

Overview

Indian literature can be categorized in multiple ways, including regions, time periods, and languages. Ancient languages include Vedic, Epic and Classical Sanskrit, and Tamil, among others. The Ramayana and Mahabharata are two massive Sanskrit poems/novels dating back to 1500 BCE–1000 CE. More common (and in some cases current) languages, other than English, include Bengali, Hindi, Marathi, Maithili, and numerous others. The size, diversity, and location of India have all directly impacted its literature. India’s first-generation authors writing in English frequently wrote with Western audiences in mind, often attempting to repair worldviews of Hinduism that had been cultivated by earlier authors. Second-generation authors were impacted by the British government’s inability and/or overall failure to improve the lives of the Indian people. Their work served as a vessel to convey their stories realistically. The quality of the writing by first- and second-generation authors made Indian literature comparable with literature in the United States and UK.

Early Indian Literature

Some of India’s earliest writings include the Hindu sacred writings, or the Vedas. Written in Sanskrit around 1500 BCE, the Vedas are religious texts that were often verbally relayed. The four Vedas include the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, and the Atharvaveda. The Rigveda is thought to be the oldest of the Vedic Sanskrit texts. Some of its passages are still used in celebratory situations, including weddings. The Yajurveda represent worship rituals and can be divided into dark or bright, depending on their clarity. The Samaveda is a more liturgical text, focusing on chants and other melodies, and the Atharvaveda is a collection of more than seven hundred hymns and roughly six thousand mantras that are divided into twenty books.

Modern Indian Literature

Though the period for contemporary literature is more defined (post World War II), modern literature’s era is much more abstract. It varies depending on country, but frequently covers the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. While a plethora of contemporary Indian literature is written in English, there has been a move for more authors to recognize and honor their colloquial or regional languages. Similarly, modern literature covers a variety of genres and styles, with many influenced by Western thought. Ultimately, however, works remain uniquely Indian. For example, Rabindranath Tagore’s novel Gora (1910) includes parallel love stories while providing a sort of commentary on India’s political and social issues at the end of the nineteenth century. Published in 1910, it is the longest of Tagore’s twelve novels. Tagore was the son of a Bengali religious sect leader. He was educated partly in England and knighted by the British government in 1915. Two years earlier, Tagore received the Nobel Prize in Literature.

More contemporary Indian writers are plentiful, including Mulk Raj Anand, R.K. Narayan, Anita Desai, Qurratulain Hyder, and Amit Chaudhuri. Hyder is well-known for her 1959 novel River of Fire, which was written in Urdu. In 1998, it was "transcreated" into English. The novel tells the story of four people while providing context and insight into political and religious turmoil within India.

Famous Indian Writers and Works

While Hyder and River of Fire are celebrated products of India, author Salman Rushdie has arguably more name recognition and familiarity. An accomplished novelist, Rushdie gained considerable worldwide publicity with his fourth novel, The Satanic Verses, in 1988. In the novel, Rushdie uses dream sequences to describe immigrant experiences. However, the novel was inspired by the life of Muhammad, the Islamic prophet. The Satanic Verses received multiple awards. However, although Rushdie maintained the book was not directly about Islam, a fatwa ordering his execution was issued and the Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran said the book was blasphemous against Islam. Bookstores were targeted and attacked, assassination attempts were made against Rushdie, and the novel was banned in various locations worldwide.

Another author, Aarvind Adiga, won the 2008 Booker Prize for his novel White Tiger. The novel follows a Bangalore driver through modern India. Along with the literary award, the book was made into a movie by Netflix in 2021. Adiga’s other works, including Between the Assassinations (2010) and Last Man in the Tower (2012), have received critical acclaim.

Children's Literature in India

Children's literature in India is often discussed in terms of oral storytelling, though it can be divided into spoken and written forms. More traditional stories, dating back generations, are often passed down verbally within families. More contemporary children’s literature is produced in a written format. That does not mean traditional stories are not included in any tangible format. Folktales and other traditional stories can be found in print formats, even in locations beyond India. Written children's stories exist in a variety of languages, including Hindi and other more regional languages. Although English is the language taught in most city schools, children's books written in English are often written from a Western perspective. Reading for pleasure was considered a luxury for children. With increases in literacy rates, and as parents have recognized the importance of reading at a young age, reading for pleasure has become more common. Parents and educators are also more willing to spend money on native-language books, increasing the demand for Indian-language publications.

Publishing in Indian languages has been encouraged by the National Book Trust and Children's Book Trust. About 70 percent of children's books are in English or Hindi, with regional languages accounting for the remaining percentages. Popular Indian children's book authors include Ruskin Bond, Subhadra Sen Gupta, and Sudha Murthy. As the demand for digital books increases, digital platforms, too, are embracing more regional languages. Providing books in regional languages is important not only for the survival of the various languages, but also to provide recognition and validation for the unique populations within India.

Bibliography

Narayanrao, H.L. "A Brief on Indian Literature and Language." Journal of Education and Practice, vol. 2, no. 3, www.iiste.org. Accessed 11 Oct. 2024.

Prabhu, Ruth Dsouza. "Children's Literature in India Undergoes Revolution As Publishers Experiment with Regional Languages, Genres." Firstpost, 14 July 2019, www.firstpost.com/living/childrens-literature-in-india-undergoes-revolution-as-publishers-experiment-with-regional-languages-genres-6943791.html. Accessed 11 Oct. 2024.

"Rabindranath Tagore." Nobel Prize, www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1913/tagore/biographical/. Accessed 11 Oct. 2024.

"75 Years, 75% Literacy: India's Long Fight against Illiteracy." The Times of India, 14 Aug. 2022, timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/75-years-75-literacy-indias-long-fight-against-illiteracy/articleshow/93555770.cms. Accessed 11 Oct. 2024.

Sheoran, Kamal and K. Sheoran. "Contemporary Children's Literature in India." Children's Literature, vol. 4, 1975, pp. 127-37. MUSE, doi:10.1353/chl.0.0714.

Storey, Thomas. “A New Literary Generation: Five Contemporary Indian Writers.” Culture Trip, 8 Feb. 2017, theculturetrip.com/asia/india/articles/a-new-literary-generation-five-contemporary-indian-writers. Accessed 11 Oct. 2024.

Wright, Robin. "How Salman Rushdie's Work Sparked Decades of Controversy." Interview with Juana Summers. NPR, 15 Aug. 2022, www.npr.org/2022/08/15/1117607481/how-salman-rushdies-novel-sparked-controversy-in-the-muslim-world-for-over-30-ye. Accessed 11 Oct. 2024.

Yesapogu, Venkateswarlu and Manjula Kandulaa. "The Philosophical Ideas and Themes of Legendary Writers of Indian English Literature through Their Fiction—A Critical Study." International Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature, vol. 4, no. 8, Aug. 2016, pp. 23–29.