The Mahabharata by Unknown
"The Mahabharata" is a revered ancient Indian epic, traditionally attributed to unknown authorship, believed to have been composed between 400 B.C.E. and 200 C.E. The narrative centers around the dynastic struggle between two groups of royal cousins, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, leading to a monumental civil war over rightful succession to the throne of Hastinapura. The story intricately weaves themes of duty, justice, and morality as it explores the lives of its characters, including the blind king Dhritarashtra, his younger brother Pandu, and the five Pandava brothers, among whom Yudhishthira emerges as a central figure.
The epic encompasses various elements, such as family dynamics, gender roles, and the philosophical underpinnings of Hinduism, including concepts of good and evil. The conflict escalates into a significant war, where divine intervention plays a crucial role; Krishna, a key character, imparts spiritual wisdom through the "Bhagavad Gita," addressing the complexities of duty and the nature of the soul. Beyond the battle, the narrative concludes with profound reflections on life, sacrifice, and the afterlife as the surviving Pandavas embark on a spiritual journey, ultimately seeking unity in heaven. "The Mahabharata" remains a cornerstone of Indian culture and philosophy, offering insights into human existence and ethical dilemmas that resonate across time and cultures.
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The Mahabharata by Unknown
First transcribed: c. 400 b.c.e.-200 c.e. (English translation, 1834)
Type of work: Poetry
Type of plot: Epic
Time of plot: Antiquity
Locale: India
Principal characters
King Dhritarashtra , the father of the KauravasKing Pandu , his brother and father of the PandavasYudhishthira , ,Bhima , ,Arjuna , ,Nakula , andSahadeva , the five sons of King PanduDraupadi , the Pandavas’s wifeDuryodhana , the oldest son of Dhritarashtra
The Poem:
Among the descendants of King Bharata (after whose name India was called Bharata-varsha, land of the Bharatas) there are two successors to the throne of Hastinapura. Of these, the elder, Dhritarashtra, is blind and gives over the reins of government to his younger brother, Pandu. Pandu grows weary of his duties and retires to hunt and enjoy himself. Again, Dhritarashtra takes control, aided by the advice and example of his wise old uncle, Bhishma. Upon Pandu’s death, his five sons are put under the care of his younger brother, who has one hundred sons of his own.
At first the king’s household is peaceful and free from strife, but gradually it becomes apparent that Pandu’s sons are far more capable of ruling than any of Dhritarashtra’s heirs. Of the Pandavas, the name given to the five descendants of Pandu, all are remarkably able, but the oldest, Yudhishthira, is judged most promising and therefore is chosen heir-apparent to the throne of the old blind king. To this selection of their cousin as the future king, the king’s own sons take violent exception. Accordingly, they persuade their father to allow the Pandavas to leave the court and live by themselves. From a trap set by the unscrupulous Duryodhana, leader of the king’s sons, the five brothers escape to the forest with their mother. There they spend some time in rustic exile.
In the meantime, King Drupada has announced that the hand of his daughter, Princess Draupadi, will be given to the hero surpassing all others in a feat of strength and skill, and he has invited throngs of noblemen to compete for his daughter’s hand. In disguise, the Pandavas set out for King Drupada’s court.
More than two weeks are spent in celebrating the approaching nuptials of the princess before the trial of strength that will reveal the man worthy of taking the lovely princess as his wife. The test is to grasp a mighty bow, fit an arrow, bend the bow, and hit a metal target with the arrow. Contestant after contestant fails in the effort to bend the huge bow. Finally, Arjuna, third of the sons of Pandu, comes forward and performs the feat with little effort to win the hand of the princess. In curious fashion, Princess Draupadi becomes the wife of all five of the brothers. At this time, also, the Pandavas meet their cousin on their mother’s side, Krishna of Dvaraka. This renowned Yadava nobleman they accept as their special counselor and friend, and to him they owe much of their future success and power.
Hoping to avert dissension after his death, King Dhritarashtra decides to divide his kingdom into two parts, giving his hundred sons, the Kauravas, one portion and the Pandavas the other. Thus, Dhritarashtra’s sons rule in Hastinapur and the five sons of Pandu in Indraprastha. The dying king’s attempt to settle affairs of government amicably results in peace and prosperity for a brief period. Then the wily Duryodhana, leader of the Kauravas, sets another trap for the Pandavas. On this occasion he entices Yudhishthira, the oldest of the brothers, into a game of skill at dice. When the latter loses, the penalty is that the five brothers are to leave the court and spend the next twelve years in the forest. At the end of that time they are to have their kingdom and holdings once again if they can pass another year in disguise, without having anyone recognize them.
The twelve-year period of rustication is one of many romantic and heroic adventures. All five brothers are concerned in stirring events; Arjuna, in particular, travels far and long, visits the sacred stream of the Ganges, is courted by several noble ladies, and finally marries Subhadra, sister of Krishna.
When the long time of exile is over, the Pandavas and Kauravas engage in a war of heroes. Great armies are assembled; mountains of supplies are brought together. Just before the fighting begins, Krishna steps forth and sings the divine song, the Bhagavad Gita, in which he sets forth such theological truths as the indestructibility of the soul, the necessity to defend the faith, and other fundamental precepts of the theology of Brahma. By means of this song Arjuna is relieved of his doubts concerning the need to make his trial by battle.
The war lasts for some eighteen consecutive days, each day marked by fierce battles, single combats, and bloody attacks. Death and destruction are everywhere—the battlefields are strewn with broken bodies and ruined weapons and chariots. The outcome is the annihilation of all the pretensions of the Kauravas and their allies to rule over the kingdom. Finally, Yudhishthira ascends the throne amid great celebrations, the payment of rich tribute, and the ceremonial horse sacrifice.
Later, the death of their spiritual and military counselor, Krishna, leads the five brothers to realize their weariness with earthly pomp and striving. Accordingly, Yudhishthira gives up his duties as ruler. The five brothers then band together, clothe themselves as hermits, and set out for Mount Meru, the dwelling place of the gods on high. They are accompanied by their wife, Draupadi, and a dog that joins them on their journey. As they proceed, one after the other drops by the way and perishes. At last only Yudhishthira and the faithful dog remain to reach the portals of heaven. When the dog is refused admission to that holy place, Yudhishthira declines to enter without his canine companion. Then the truth is revealed—the dog is in reality the god of justice himself, sent to test Yudhishthira’s constancy.
Yudhishthira is not content in heaven, for he soon realizes that his brothers and Draupadi have been required to descend to the lower regions and there expiate their mortal sins. Lonely and disconsolate, he decides to join them until all can be united in heaven. After he spends some time in that realm of suffering and torture, the gods take pity on him. Along with his brothers and Draupadi, he is transported back to heaven, where all dwell in perpetual happiness.
Bibliography
Badrinath, Chaturvedi. The Mahabharata: An Inquiry in the Human Condition. New Delhi: Orient Longman, 2006. A scholarly study of the Hindu philosophy expressed in The Mahabharata. Badrinath maintains the epic is a systematic inquiry into the human condition, concerned with individual liberty, knowledge, equality, love, friendship, and other issues of everyday life.
Brodbeck, Simon, and Brian Black, eds. Gender and Narrative in “The Mahabharata.” New York: Routledge, 2007. A collection of essays analyzing the treatment of gender, paternity, marriage, and ethics in The Mahabharata.
Dhand, Arti. Woman as Fire, Woman as Sage: Sexual Ideology in “The Mahabharata.” Albany: State University of New York Press, 2008. Dhand demonstrates how The Mahabharata expresses Hindu ideas regarding sexuality and women.
Goldman, Robert P. Gods, Priests, and Warriors: The Bhrgus of “The Mahabharata.” New York: Columbia University Press, 1977. An analysis of the literary and mythic significance of the tales of the priestly clan known as the Bhrgus, of Bhargavas, whose exploits make up a substantial portion of the text of The Mahabharata. Explores the relationship of the epic to events that may have inspired it.
Hiltebeitel, Alf. Rethinking “The Mahabharata”: A Reader’s Guide to the Education of the Dharma King. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001. A rereading of the epic, focusing on Yudhishthira, also known as the Dharma King; Hiltebeitel demonstrates how Yudhishthira’s relationships to other characters, especially his author-grandfather, Vyasa, and his wife, Draupadi, are threaded throughout the epic’s confusing array of frames and stories within stories. Hiltebeitel also proposes a revisionist theory about the dating and creation of the original text.
‗‗‗‗‗‗‗. The Ritual of Battle: Krishna in “The Mahabharata.” Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1976. Focuses on the role of the Indian god Krishna in the epic. Hiltebeitel explains the structure of the work and describes its relationship to Indian myth and history.
McGrath, Kevin. The Sanskrit Hero: Karna in Epic Mahabharata. Boston: Brill, 2004. McGrath focuses on the character of Karna to describe the nature and function of the hero and of “heroic religion” in epic Indic poetry.
Narasimhan, Chakravarthi V. Introduction to The Mahabharata. New York: Columbia University Press, 1965. Narasimhan outlines the plot of this complex, rambling work. He highlights the human qualities of the epic heroes and notes the underlying emphasis on the necessity for peace to bring about happiness.
Van Nooten, Barend A. The Mahabharata. New York: Twayne, 1971. An excellent guidebook to the epic. Includes a detailed summary of the story; explains its mythology, and examines the literary history of the work. Assesses the impact of The Mahabharata on modern India and on the West.