Manhwa (South Korean comics)

Definition

The term manhwa is used to denote Korean comics, print cartoons, and sometimes animated cartoons. In the United States, the term refers to comics and graphic novels originally published in South Korea.

Introduction

The term manhwa came into popular use in Korea during the 1920’s, when it was applied to cartoons. Korea was under Japanese occupation from 1910 to 1945, and during this time, elements of Japanese language and culture were incorporated into Korean society. The term manhwa is derived from the Japanese term for comics, manga.

During the early years of Japanese occupation, newspaper comics featured a great deal of social criticism. By the mid-1920’s, most political newspapers were shut down, and political and social cartoons were abandoned in favor of children’s and humorous illustrations. Political cartoons slowly reemerged following the establishment of the Republic of Korea (commonly known as South Korea) in 1948. Popular artist Kim Yong-hwan started Korea’s first comic magazine, Manhwa Haengjin, in 1948, but it was quickly shut down because the authorities disapproved of the cover. During the Korean War (1950-1953), cartoons became a popular vehicle for propaganda.

For a period after the Korean War, children’s comic books were quite popular. When sales began to decline, rental stores for comics began to open, allowing readers to rent comic books for lower prices than they would have paid to purchase them. While this system had its advantages, the quality of the comics suffered because of the lower prices, and the paper quality suffered as well. Artists created groups with the goal of improving the quality of the work: the Taehan Association of Cartoonists (later known as the Han’guk Association of Cartoonists) was an organization of children’s cartoonists, and the Hyondae Association of Cartoonists was an organization for artists of adult comics.

The popularity of comics rose during the 1950’s and 1960’s, and the diversity of styles and subject matter led to the creation of new genres such as sunjeong (or soonjung), romantic stories aimed at young women. Manhwabang, comics cafés and stores that allowed readers to pay a set rate to sit and read comics, were also introduced to the public. In response to the increasing publication of comics and social and political changes within South Korea, the government began to enforce censorship laws and, by the mid-1960’s, created a comics distribution monopoly that further censored manhwa.

During the 1970’s, manga was increasingly imported from Japan, opening up the market to adults and allowing more risqué comics to find a market. However, the government stepped in once again and, in the 1980’s, closed down many publishers and arrested publishers and artists for violation of the Juvenile Protection Law. A government measure introduced in 1987 stipulated that local publishers that registered with the government could publish without prior censorship, which prompted Korean publishers to import more adult-themed manga and either copy them outright or edit them for Korean audiences. By the 1990’s, there was a rebirth of comic books in Korea as Korean artists fought against the influx of manga and demanded government intervention. Manhwa found an outlet online by the middle of the decade.

Impact of Manga on Manhwa

Manga influenced manhwa from the medium’s beginnings during the Japanese occupation of Korea and continued to exert a powerful influence as the manga industry became a major force within Japanese culture and began to export comics abroad. Manhwaga (or manhwa artists) were not culturally isolated, and the influx of manga into the Korean comics market had a strong effect on the art and content of many artists’ manhwa.

The extent of manga’s influence on the artistic style of manhwa has been a topic of debate. Some artists claim there are no differences between the two styles, since both use a traditional Asian style of drawing that emphasizes black-and-white lines, white space, and other basic artistic styles and principles. However, some South Korean publishers have adapted manga for the Korean market by editing the art to suit cultural and social tastes, at times adding clothing to nude or scantily clad characters or otherwise altering the illustrations. Furthermore, the depiction of characters, though similar, is somewhat stylistically different: Eyes and faces are drawn more softly and realistically in manhwa than in manga.

Other artists claim there is a significant difference between manga and manhwa in terms of the content of the stories, arguing that while manga is more interested in plot, manhwa focuses on characters. Manhwa is generally more conservative than manga and typically deals with more realistic situations, though there are a significant number of science-fiction and other nonrealistic manhwa in circulation. One of the most obvious differences between the two forms concerns the directions in which works are read; manga is read from right to left, while manhwa is read from left to right in keeping with the orientation of Korean text.

Modern Manhwa

The 1990’s ushered in a new age of comics for Korea, with sales and publications soaring. Japanese comics flooded the market despite the attempts of the Korea Ethics Committee on Books, Magazines, and Weekly Newspapers to hinder outright plagiarism of Japanese comics and to prevent violent and sexually graphic materials from entering the mainstream. In an attempt to gain government support for Korean comics and prevent manga from taking over the Korean comics industry, members of organizations such as the Korean Cartoonists Association led public demonstrations against manga and ridiculed Korean artists they claimed were heavily influenced by it. These efforts were at least somewhat successful, as the government began to recognize manhwa as a legitimate and popular art form, even using it to spread its own political messages. The government also established a number of initiatives to promote local production of comics, including government subsidies, grants, museums, and libraries.

Although the importation of manga did not stop, by the early 2000’s, the Korean comics industry was flourishing. Manhwa finally began to be sold in traditional bookstores, which improved circulation and public perceptions of manhwa, making comics more respectable and accessible to readers who were uncomfortable visiting manhwabang and comics stores. More than one hundred universities and colleges established departments or majors dedicated to cartooning and illustration, further calling attention to the increasing acceptance of manhwa as an art form.

Impact

With manga proving to be both popular and commercially successful in Europe and the United States, a number of publishers imported and translated manhwa titles in the hope of reaching the same audience. The readability and left-to-right orientation of manhwa contributed to its growing popularity, as did the realism of the characters and the combination of Eastern and Western styles and mythologies. Popular manhwa in the U.S. and European markets include Ragnarok, Priest, Island, and Tarot Café. While some manhwa titles have been successful in these markets, the primary impact of manhwa has been local to South Korea, where artists have moved away from manga-style comics to develop their own art styles, characters, and story lines.

Bibliography

Johnson-Woods, Toni. Manga: An Anthology of Global and Cultural Perspectives. New York: Continuum, 2010. Discusses manhwa’s cultural context as well as the influence of manga on the Korean cartooning industry, focusing in particular on the 1980’s and 1990’s.

Russell, Mark James. Pop Goes Korea: Behind the Revolution in Movies, Music, and Internet Culture. Berkeley, Calif.: Stone Bridge Press, 2008. Includes a chapter devoted to manhwa that details its rise during the 1990’s and early twenty-first century and provides sidebars about important artists and works.

Sugiyama, Rika. Comic Artists—Asia: Manga, Manhwa, Manhua. New York: Harper, 2004. Introduces the work of comics artists in Japan, Korea, and Hong Kong through artist profiles and interviews that provide insight into their processes.