Modernismo

Works Discussed in This Essay

• "Explosion" by Delmira Agustini
• "Far Away" by Rubén Darío
• "I dream of cloisters of marble" by José Martí
• "Intimate" by Delmira Agustini
• "Ritornelo" by León de Greiff
• "Springtime" by Rubén Darío
• "To Roosevelt" by Rubén Darío

A literary movement that took place in Latin America in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Modernismo revolutionized Spanish-language poetry and prose on a global scale. To understand the significance of Modernismo and the impact it has had on contemporary literature, it is necessary to first understand how the movement originated. Prior to the late 1880s, the most popular literature of the time was being produced in Europe. Latin American writers struggled to earn international acclaim and to forge an independent literary voice free of the region's colonial past. Modernismo, and the groundbreaking poetic voices that emerged from the movement, would change all of this.

While Modernismo was wholly original and unique in its Latin American perspective, scholars agree that there were three European literary movements that influenced it. One such movement was Romanticism, an early nineteenth-century response to the Industrial Revolution. Romantic works typically focus on human emotion, a thematic quality adopted by modernist poets. Romantic writers who are credited with having had a significant impact on Modernismo include Victor Hugo, who prioritized the idea of freedom in his works, and Edgar Allen Poe, who introduced metrical experimentation to some of Modernismo's foremost writers.

The French literary movement known as Parnassianism also shaped Modernismo in a significant way. Parnassianism emerged in the mid-1800s. Rejecting the sentimentality of romanticism, many Parnassian writers focused on classical topics and aimed to produce flawless works that adhered to strict literary rules. The Parnassian philosophy of creating "art for art's sake," rather than for didactic purposes, ultimately became a central tenet of many modernist writers. The third major influence on Modernismo was symbolism, which emerged as an artistic movement in the waning years of Parnassianism and shared many of the same participants. Symbolism began with a group of French poets in the late 1800s who sought to capture and express the human experience through highly symbolic language and imagery. Ultimately, modernist writers borrowed from this movement by using allegories to capture the essence and beauty of the most abstract, indefinable aspects of life.

The confluence of certain romantic, Parnassian, and symbolist literary elements with a distinctly Latin American perspective was first evident in the work of Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío, born Félix Rubén García Sarmiento to parents Manuel García and Rosa Sarmiento on January 18, 1867. (Although his paternal family name was García, his great-grandfather had been known by the nickname Don Darío, and the name was later adopted by other members of his family; Darío's father had conducted business under the name Manuel Darío.) Raised in Léon, Nicaragua, by his maternal aunt and uncle, Darío was an avid reader and writer from an early age. He was writing sonnets as early as 1879 and was first published in a newspaper at age thirteen. In 1882 Darío moved to El Salvador, where he came under the tutelage of Salvadoran poet Francisco Gavidia, an expert on French poetry. As a result of this relationship, Darío became well-versed in the works of Victor Hugo as well as those of symbolist Paul Verlaine and Parnassian Théophile Gautier.

Later, while living in Chile, Darío published the groundbreaking book Azul . . . (1888) when he was just twenty-one. A compilation of short stories and poems, Azul . . . is recognized not just as the true beginning of Modernismo but also as marking the emergence of, according to Roberto González Echevarría, "the first major poet in the [Spanish] language since the seventeenth century" (29). The significance of Azul . . . can be attributed in part to the variety of stylistic innovations that it introduced to the literary world. Such innovations are first evident in the book's poetry, which, at first glance, appear to be nothing but florid love poems. However, they are, in fact, much more original literary vessels in which Darío boldly invented his own rhyme schemes and stanza structures. The poems were also revolutionary in the way that they presented emotional intensity and sensuality in a vibrant, dreamlike way. This is illustrated in one of the poems in Azul . . ., "Primaveral" ("Springtime"):

Month of roses. My poems

wander through the vast forest

to gather honey and fragrance

from the half-opened flowers. (lines 1–4)

The unfiltered freedom of expression and sensuality that is evident throughout the poetry of Azul . . . was in many ways unprecedented. The book's prose also proved to be radical for nineteenth-century Spanish-language literature. These short stories, which were mostly either veiled criticisms of bourgeois European life or fantastical narratives about classic mythological creatures such as nymphs and satyrs, were remarkable in part for breaking away from the long, grammatically complex sentence structure of traditional Spanish writing. Before the publication of Azul . . . , Spanish literature had been in a state of stagnation since the conclusion of El Siglo de Oro, the Spanish Golden Age, in the late 1600s. As a result, many Spanish and Latin American authors were still writing in antiquated, baroque language. By using simple, direct language to explore contemporary themes and unfiltered emotions, Darío ultimately helped modernize Spanish-language literature to better reflect contemporary life.

Darío first introduced the word Modernismo to the public in an 1888 essay entitled "La literatura en Centroámerica" (Literature in Central America), in which he called upon Latin American writers to bring modernity into their artistic expression. Once Darío had provided the spark for this avant-garde literary movement, a flood of modernist essays, poetry, and short stories emerged. With Darío as the movement's leader and Azul . . . as its unofficial manifesto, Modernismo quickly grew into a network of writers scattered across South and Central America. In addition to their desire to redefine the art of the Spanish language, many of these poets gravitated toward Modernismo because they felt as though it gave a powerful voice to Latin American communities against outside imperialist forces. This was especially the case for José Martí, a leader of the nineteenth-century Cuban liberation movement. Martí further developed the modernist style Darío had introduced in Azul . . . by using it to express a desire for a postcolonial future where imperialism and racial prejudice would be nonexistent.

Delmira Agustini was another significant voice to emerge from the Modernismo movement. Born in Uruguay in 1886, Agustini became one of Darío's pupils while the two worked together for the magazine La alborada (The dawn). Many of Agustini's poems are about Eros, the Greek god of love, and explore the theme of female sexuality. Agustini was a member of the modernist group known as the Generation of 1900, which also included Darío, Uruguayan writer Julio Herrera y Reissig, and Argentine writer Leopoldo Lugones. Another equally important group of bohemian artists and writers who contributed to the Modernismo movement was Los Panidas, a Colombian literary and artistic movement that was named for the Greek god Pan and counted among its adherents the poets León de Greiff and Fernando González Ochoa. Los Panidas aimed to take the European standards of art and literature and infuse them with South American culture, colloquial language, and perspective.

Although Modernismo was largely over by 1920, it continued to inspire poets and writers across Latin America. One of the foremost modernist voices of Brazil was Mário de Andrade. Building off of the stylistic innovations of Darío and the rest of the Generation of 1900, Andrade introduced a highly individualistic prose style that reflected the colloquial Portuguese spoken in Brazil.

In many ways, Modernismo was a literary rebellion against European culture. Modernista poets often used their poems as vessels to criticize the imperialist bourgeoisie whom they saw as their longtime cultural oppressors. One way they accomplished this was by presenting the natural beauty and cultural wealth of Latin America as superior to the aristocratic refinement of Europe, and by contrasting the spiritual richness of the former with the materialism of the latter. This stylistic trait is often attributed to Rubén Darío and is evidenced in his poem "Allá lejos" ("Far Away"), which begins with the following stanza:

Ox that I saw in my childhood, as you steamed

in the burning gold of the Nicaraguan sun,

there on the rich plantation filled with tropical

harmonies; woodland dove, of the woods that sang

with the sound of the wind, of axes, of birds and wild bulls:

I salute you both, because you are both my life. (1–6)

Here, Darío describes a pastoral scene in the same manner one might describe the court of a king or queen. To Darío, the Nicaraguan sunshine provides a bounty of gold, and the plantation itself is a treasure chest of wealth. Furthermore, the sounds of the wind, of animals, and of people working are beautiful music to his ears. By saluting the ox and the woodland dove, as they are "both [his] life," he implies that they are worthy of the utmost respect.

Like "Far Away," many modernista poems demonstrate an unabashed pride for the poet's home country. Darío specifies that the ox is standing, not in just any sun, but "in the burning gold of the Nicaraguan sun." By stating it this way, he implies that Nicaraguan sunshine is more precious and beautiful than sunshine from anywhere else. At a time when many Latin American nations were ruled by imperialist forces that imposed their own cultures on the peoples of those nations, people of Indigenous or mixed backgrounds were often subjected to ridicule and prejudice because of their heritage. By using their poetry to demonstrate their pride in their national identities, modernista poets were defying hundreds of years of colonial history.

Occasionally, they were more direct in their defense of Latin American lives, cultures, and identities. In his poem "A Roosevelt" ("To Roosevelt"), for example, Darío voices his concerns about the threat of US imperialism when it appeared that the United States was fomenting a revolution in Panama in order to gain control over the Panama Canal Zone:

You are the United States,

future invader of our naive America

with its Indian blood, an America

that still prays to Christ and still speaks Spanish. (5–8)

As was the case in a number of modernista poems, Darío is acknowledging the Indigenous background of many Latin Americans while criticizing the greed of Western forces. He then takes this one step further in the third stanza by boldly telling Theodore Roosevelt, the president of the United States, to back down:

You think that life is a fire,

that progress is an irruption,

that the future is wherever

your bullet strikes.

No. (15–19)

Although Darío was always a somewhat political writer, this tendency grew over time as a result of the influence of José Martí, the Cuban revolutionary whom he viewed as a mentor. In much of his work, Martí made a case for a future of racial harmony, which he argued could only exist without the presence of Western imperialist forces. Martí most famously introduced this idea, which would become integral to the Modernismo movement, in his essay "Nuestra América" ("Our America"), which was published on January 1, 1891, in the New York magazine Revista ilustrada, and then on January 30 in the Mexican newspaper El partido liberal.

Just as Martí influenced Darío, so did Darío influence Martí. Martí adopted Darío's simple, straightforward approach to Spanish prose, as well as many of the modernista themes he introduced in his poems. For example, in his poem beginning with the line "Sueño con claustros de mármol" ("I dream of cloisters of marble"), Martí demonstrates the modernista tendency toward exoticism. The poem begins with the speaker describing how he dreams of cloisters, or covered walkways, where marble statues of heroes stand, and how he visits them at night:

The ranks are formed; I pass

Through rows of stone, to kiss

A statue's marble hand

Then eyes of stone are opened

I see moving lips of stone

Beards of stone are trembling

They grip a sword of stone, and cry.

The blade trembles in its sheath!

And I silently kiss each hand. (6–14)

As evident in these lines, exoticism would be represented in Modernismo through exotic entities. Sometimes these entities would be flowers such as lotuses or magnolias, or precious stones such as jades, emeralds, and rubies. In Martí's poem, exoticism is present in the imagery of the marble cloisters and statues. Just as Darío wrote about nymphs and satyrs in Azul . . ., Martí also evokes a sense of classic Greek mythology as he describes these stone heroes coming to life. For Martí, these statues are representative of his brave Latin American ancestors, and by kissing their hands he is demonstrating his appreciation for their bravery and sacrifice years before.

In addition to exoticism and mythology, modernista poems often focus on loneliness, love, and passion. No modernista poet exemplified these traits in their work as well as Delmira Agustini, who later went on to be recognized as one of the greatest Latin American poets of the early twentieth century. Her poem "Explosión" ("Explosion") exemplifies Modernismo's perspective on romantic love, as seen in the first stanza:

If life were love, how blessed it would be!

I want more life so to love! Now I feel

A thousand years of ideas are not worth

One blue minute of sentiment. (1–4)

In these lines, Romanticism's influence on Modernismo becomes clear. Romantic literature of the early nineteenth century rejected the scientific pragmatism of the Age of Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution and instead prioritized human emotion. Similarly, Agustini is arguing that "a thousand years of ideas" are not as valuable or worthwhile as "one blue minute" of being in love. As colors were important and highly symbolic in Modernismo, Agustini's use of the word "blue" to describe a brief moment of feeling love is significant. Discussing his choice of title for Azul . . . , Darío once wrote, "Blue was for me the color of enchantment, the color of art, an Hellenic and Homeric color, oceanic and heavenly color" (qtd. in Jrade 160). Therefore, Agustini's use of the phrase a "blue minute" can be interpreted as implying that any experience with love, no matter how short, is a holy experience.

Beyond feelings of love, Agustini's poems also explore the nature of female sexuality. Although this may have been a radical subject for the time, both Agustini's peers and the public celebrated her poems. The openness with which Agustini and other modernistas wrote about sexual passion is especially evident in her poem "Íntima" ("Intimate"), which concludes with the following stanza:

We go further into night, we go

Where in me not an echo reverberates,

Like a nocturnal flower in the shade,

I will open sweetly for you. (45–48)

Ideas of love and sex were common among many of the male modernista poets as well. For example, in "Ritornelo," by Colombian modernista poet León de Greiff—sometimes referred to by its first line, "Esa rosa fue testigo" ("This rose was a witness")—the speaker reflects joyfully on an experience he had with a lover:

"This rose was a witness"

Of this, that if this was not love

No other love could be.

This rose was a witness

From when you gave yourself to me!

On that day, I don't know when it was

(Well I do, but won't say),

This rose was a witness. (1–8)

Roses were a common symbol in Modernismo, typically used to represent passion and sensuality. Ultimately, the repetition of the line "This rose was a witness," as well as de Greiff's use of parentheses and exclamation marks (which are also present in the original Spanish version), are intended to infuse the poem with a feeling of jubilant playfulness, presenting erotic love as a matter worth celebrating rather than feeling ashamed of. This was a modernista idea, one that not only broke away from the values of European Catholicism but also became emblematic of Latin American literature in general. Subsequent generations of poets, among them Octavio Paz and Pablo Neruda, would continue to portray love and sex in this way.

Although most scholars agree that Modernismo concluded in the early 1920s, its influence across the globe was profound. Modernismo's aestheticism and use of language was especially visible in the works of the Spain's Generation of 1898, a group of writers and philosophers who were active during the Spanish-American War. Ultimately, Modernismo was the first independent art movement to come out of Latin America and earn international acclaim.

Bibliography

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González, Aníbal. A Companion to Spanish American Modernismo. Tamesis, 2007.

González Echevarría, Roberto. "The Master of Modernismo." Review of Rubén Darío: Selected Writings, by Rubén Darío, edited by Ilan Stavans, translated by Andrew Hurley, et al. The Nation, 13 Feb. 2006, pp. 29–33. Literary Reference Center, . Accessed 10 Apr. 2017.

Greiff, León de. "This Rose Was a Witness." Translated by Paul Archer. Paul Archer, www.paularcher.net/translations/leon‗de‗greiff/this‗rose‗was‗a‗witness.html. Accessed 20 Oct. 2024.

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Martínez, Valerie, translator. "Delmira Agustini." The Drunken Boat, spring 2002, www.thedrunkenboat.com/agustini.html. Accessed 10 Apr. 2017.