The Nation of Islam in Literature
The Nation of Islam (NOI) is a religious and social movement that emerged in the United States during the early 20th century, primarily founded by Wallace D. Fard in 1930. While it incorporates some elements of traditional Islamic faith, it also promotes unique doctrines, such as the belief that whites are oppressors and the advocacy for black self-sufficiency and sociopolitical separation from white society. Following Fard's disappearance, Elijah Muhammad led the organization, with Malcolm X becoming one of its most prominent figures until his departure in the 1960s.
The influence of the Nation of Islam extends significantly into African American literature, particularly during the Black Arts movement of the 1960s. Writers like Amiri Baraka and Malcolm X himself expressed political and confrontational themes that resonate with the NOI's ideologies. Notable literary works influenced by the movement include Malcolm X's autobiography and various texts documenting his life and beliefs. Furthermore, many African American writers of the era adopted new identities, often changing their names to reflect African or Islamic heritage.
Although the Nation of Islam's prominence has shifted over the decades, its themes continue to appear in contemporary literature, including notable novels and hip-hop music, where artists engage with its concepts and legacy. Overall, the Nation of Islam's impact on literature reflects broader struggles for racial identity, equality, and empowerment within the African American community.
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The Nation of Islam in Literature
Overview
In 1930, Wallace D. Fard (also known by various other names, including, Wallace Fard Muhammad, Walli Farrad, and Farrad Muhammad) began spreading what would become the central precepts of the Nation of Islam. The organization generally adheres to tenets of the Islamic faith, sanctioning the Qur'an and the worship of Allah, although followers (often known as Black Muslims) do not necessarily have to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. Strict codes of conduct regarding tobacco, dress, drugs, sex, and marriage are adhered to by its members. Tenets unique to the Nation of Islam include the idea that whites are devils and use Christianity to subjugate blacks; that history should be retold so that blacks may be given the regal spot they deserve as original agents of civilization; and that blacks should strive for independence and sociopolitical separation from whites. Black Muslims also rigorously confront the conditions of African Americans in racist America.
After Fard's disappearance in 1934, Elijah Muhammad, who had become acquainted with Fard in the early 1930s, succeeded him. Prominent member Malcolm X was chosen by Elijah Muhammad to expand the Nation of Islam, but differences of opinion led to Malcolm X's breaking with the Nation of Islam in the early 1960s, and he was assassinated in 1965. After Elijah Muhammad's death in 1975, the Nation passed through a time of crisis in leadership. Louis Farrakhan became the leader; he oversaw an increase in membership into the 1990s, although the group remained controversial. Farrakhan has been the subject of writings such as Jabril Muhammad's A Special Spokesman (1984) and Farrakhan the Traveler (1984).
Black Muslim doctrines have greatly affected African American literature. During the 1960s, the Black Arts movement, with such spokespeople as Amiri Baraka and Larry Neal, affiliated itself with major tenets of the Nation of Islam. The movement fostered a spirit recognizable in black American writing. Black Muslim and pro-Black Muslim writers created writings that were explicitly political, confrontational, and prescriptive, insisting on rigorous solutions to racism and inequality. Baraka's 1965 Black Revolutionary Theater manifesto, an antiwhite, antibourgeois, antiblack middle class, combative, and pro-Islamic assault on racism, stands as one of the clearest examples of the Nation's philosophy on black writing.
Another literary work influenced by the Nation of Islam is Malcolm X's The Autobiography of Malcolm X (1964), completed with the assistance of Alex Haley. Chronicling the life of Malcolm X, his conversion to and subsequent disputes with and breakaway from the Nation, the autobiography highlights the reasons for the Nation's beliefs and aspirations.
Several African American writings address the Nation of Islam and its major figures in political, documentary fashion. Aside from the autobiography, a number of texts also recount Malcolm X's life and ideologies. These texts include: Malcolm X Speaks (1965), Malcolm X Talks to Young People (1965), The End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches (1971), and Malcolm X: The Last Speeches (1989), edited by Bruce Perry and Betty Shabazz. The books feature famous speeches by Malcolm X. Other books by or about Malcolm X include George Breitman's The Last Year of Malcolm X: The Evolution of a Revolutionary (1967), Malcolm X's By Any Means Necessary (1970), Peter Louis Goldman's The Death of Malcolm X (1973), and Manning Marable's Pulitzer Prize–winning Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (2011).
The Nation of Islam has also influenced African American literature in terms of writers' identities, particularly in the 1960s and 70s. Many African American writers have changed their names, dropping names they associate with slavery or Christianity names and adopting African or Muslim names. In addition to Baraka and Malcolm X, such writers included Katibu (Larry Miller) and Askia Muhammad Toure (Rolland Snellings). Meanwhile, Elijah Muhammad himself produced literature and advanced the principles and goals of the Black Muslims. His practical Islamic proposal for healthy eating in How to Eat to Live (1967), departs from the rebelliousness of his Message to the Blackman in America (1965) and The Fall of America (1973). Other important works referencing the Nation of Islam include James Baldwin's The Fire Next Time (1963), a collection of two major essays, one of which, "Down at the Cross," compares the organization favorably to Christianity.
Although the Nation of Islam became arguably less politically and socially influential in the early twenty-first century, it continued to appear in American literature. While most writing about the organization came from scholars such as historians and sociologists, it did appear at times in notable works in other genres. For example, the bestselling, Pulitzer Prize–winning novel Middlesex (2002) by Jeffrey Eugenides includes a fictional take on Fard's backstory as part of its depiction of late twentieth-century Detroit. Black Muslim themes also continued to resonate in much African American poetry, as well as its direct descendant, hip-hop music. Highly influential rap artists such as Public Enemy, Kanye West, and others often made direct references to the Nation of Islam in their lyrics.
Bibliography
Allport, Gordon W. The Black Muslims in America. Boston: Beacon Press, 1961.
Baraka, Amiri, and Larry Neal, eds. Black Fire: An Anthology of Afro-American Writing. New York: William Morrow, 1968.
Gibson, Dawn-Marie. A History of the Nation of Islam: Race, Islam, and the Quest for Freedom. Praeger, 2012.
Gibson, Dawn-Marie. The Nation of Islam, Louis Farrakhan, and the Men Who Follow Him. Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.
Lincoln, C. Eric. The Black Muslims in America. 3d ed. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1994.
"A Literary History of The Autobiography of Malcolm X." Harvard University Press Blog, 20 Apr. 2012, harvardpress.typepad.com/hup‗publicity/2012/04/a-literary-history-of-the-autobiography-of-malcolm-x.html. Accessed 19 Aug. 2019.
Lomax, Louis E. The Negro Revolt. New York: Harper & Row, 1962.
Taylor, Ula Y. The Promise of Patriarchy: Women and the Nation of Islam. The U of North Carolina P, 2017.