Old English Language
Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon, is a West Germanic language that was spoken in Britain from approximately the mid-fifth century until the Norman Conquest in 1066. It is the earliest historical form of the English language and a direct ancestor of Modern English. Over the centuries, Old English evolved gradually, influenced significantly by Latin, Old Norse, French, and other languages, leading to the development of Middle English. Key literary works from this period include the epic poem "Beowulf" and the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicles," which document historical events and are primarily written in the West Saxon dialect.
Old English utilized a runic alphabet before transitioning to the Latin alphabet with the arrival of Christianity, which introduced many Latin terms into the language. It featured regional dialects—Northumbrian, Mercian, Kentish, and West Saxon—that were mutually intelligible. The language's evolution continued through interactions with Viking invaders and later French influences following the Norman Conquest. Today, Old English is studied by academics and literary enthusiasts and continues to inspire modern writers, showcasing its lasting cultural significance.
Old English Language
Old English is a West Germanic language spoken in Britain from about the mid-fifth century until the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. Also known as Anglo-Saxon, it is the earliest historical form of the English language and a direct descendent of Modern English. Old English was influenced by Latin, French, Old Norse, Dutch, Flemish, and Frisian. The shift between Old English to Middle English to Modern English was a gradual change occurring over centuries, causing barely noticeable differences between generations.
More than four hundred Old English manuscripts exist, the oldest being Cædmons Hymn, a poem about Biblical creation written between 658 and 680 CE. Other well-known literary works are the epic poem Beowulf, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, a collection of historical annals. From the fifth to tenth centuries, Old English used a runic alphabet and writing system. The runes were mostly used for inscriptions on wood, metal, and stone. After the arrival of Christianity, Old English adopted the Latin alphabet, adding the additional letters thorn (þ), yogh (ȝ), eth (ð), and wynn (ƿ).
Most surviving works in Old English include poetry, religious texts, epics, grammars, legal documents, and histories. The Chronicles were commissioned by King Alfred the Great in the late ninth century and documented significant events of each year until the late twelfth century.
In the eleventh century, Old English evolved into Middle English, the language of writers Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare. A major difference between the languages was the elimination of many noun and verb endings used in Old English. There were no Old English dictionaries, so spelling was often not uniform, a trend that continues into Modern English. The West-Saxon Old English dialect did have a standard for manuscripts, but it was not universally used.
History and Classification
Old English comes from the Indo-European family of languages, a common ancestor of many modern languages that originated about four thousand BCE in an area near the Black Sea. Old English is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes German, Dutch, Flemish and Frisian. Old English is most similar to Old Frisian, with notable Danish, Latin, and Celtic influences.
The dialects of Old Norse are considered sister languages to Old English and the speakers of both languages could most likely understand each other. Old English was the language of the Germanic tribes that settled Britain in the fifth century. The Anglo-Saxon tribes came from Germania, a territory east of the Rhine River and north of the Danube River as far east as Poland and as far north as Scandinavia. The people of Britain came into contact with other Germanic dialects through trade with continental Europeans, exposure to Roman soldiers, and contact with Viking raiders.
When missionaries converted England to Christianity in the seventh century, they brought Latin influences to Old English. Latin was the language of the church and education, and introduced terms such as abbot, angel, ark, hymn, martyr, pope, psalm, and temple to the Anglo-Saxons. Latin also contributed words to the vocabulary of medicine, food, plants, education, and everyday items. Some examples include purple, lobster, pear, radish, aloe, lily, school, anchor, fever, and grammar.
Beginning in the late eighth century, Viking explorers began raiding England’s eastern coast. The Vikings spoke Old Norse and greatly influenced Old English with their vocabulary and place names. Some Old Norse words adopted by Old English are sky, skirt, egg, they, their, and them. Norse influences on Old English also survive in the modern days of the week, such as Tuesday, honoring the war god Tiu; Wednesday, honoring Woden, the leader of the gods; Thursday, honoring Thor, the god of thunder,; and Friday, honoring Freya, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility.
With the arrival of William the Conqueror and the Norman Conquest of 1066, Old English began borrowing and adapting from French vocabulary, introducing words such as prince, soldier, beauty, jewel, literature, and the word language itself. These Latin, Norse, and French influences helped Old English develop into Middle English by the eleventh century.
Geographic Distribution and Modern Usage
Used throughout England, which is now a part of the United Kingdom, Old English had four major dialects. Northumbrian was spoken north of the river Humber, Mercian was spoken in the midlands, Kentish in the far southeastern part of the island, and West Saxon in the southwest. The dialects were mutually intelligible, meaning speakers could understand one another. Modern English comes mostly from Mercian, the dialect of the region where London was founded. All four Old English dialects have modern descendants in English and American regional dialects. The majority of surviving written artifacts in Old English is in the West Saxon dialect.
Old English also influenced Old Norse and Celtic languages, as well as the cultures Anglo-Saxons traded and interacted with. In the twenty-first century, Old English continues to be popular among academics and literary enthusiasts and was a source of inspiration and reference for authors such as J. R. R. Tolkien, Ezra Pound, W. H. Auden, and Seamus Heaney. Old English is no longer confined to Great Britain, as the literature and archaeological remnants of it are accessible worldwide.
Bibliography
"Gregory I and England." Christian History Institute. Christian History Institute, n.d. Web. 29 Sept. 2015. <https://www.christianhistoryinstitute.org/study/module/gregory-the-great-evangelizes-england/>.
Gelderen, E. A History of the English Language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2006. Print.
Hoad, T. "West Saxon Dialect." The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England: Second Edition. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell, 2013. Print.
Hogg, R., et al. The Cambridge History of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1992. Print.
"Old English/Anglo-Saxon." Omniglot. Simon Ager, 2013. Web. 29 Sept. 2015. <http://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm>.
Shay, Scott. The History of English: A Linguistic Introduction. San Francisco: Wardja, 2008. Print.
Shore, Thomas. Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race. Port Washington: Kennikat, 1971. Print.
Wheeler, K. "Old English." Carson-Newman University. Carson-Newman University. 2015. Web. 29 Sept. 2015. <https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/documents/OE‗vs‗ME.pdf>.