Pali literature

Pali literature is a term primarily used to describe the entire body of texts that makes up the scriptures of Theravada Buddhism. This notably includes the Pali Canon, the oldest and most important scriptures in Theravada Buddhism. It also includes a long list of various paracanonical texts, commentarial literature, historical chronicles, and more. In addition to its association with Theravada Buddhism, Pali literature is also distinguished by the fact that it is written in a specific language also known as Pali. A composite liturgical language closely related to other Middle Indo-Aryan languages, Pali was long thought to have been the language spoken by the Buddha himself. Over time, Pali became known simply as the language of the Theravada Buddha texts. For this reason, the Pali literary canon is one of the most unique and important of its kind in the world.

Background

The history of Pali literature is directly tied to the history and heritage of Theravada Buddhism itself. Dominant throughout much of Southeast Asia, Theravada is one of the two main schools of Buddhism, with the other being Mahayana. Traditionally, the Theravada school claims to be both the oldest form of Buddhism and the only form descended directly from the Buddha’s disciples, or the sangha. Historians generally agree that Theravada is probably the oldest form of Buddhism, having likely originated just a few years after the Buddha’s death. Specifically, it evolved from the Vibhajjavada sect that first appeared in Sri Lanka during the third century Before the Common Era (BCE), some time before the emergence of Mahayana. It is less clear whether Theravada or Mahayana is closer in form to the original Buddhism.

Theravada Buddhism differs from Mahayana in several key ways. Unlike Mahayana, Theravada does not have significant sectarian divisions. This means that Theravada doctrines are largely the same from temple to temple. In terms of beliefs, Theravada stresses the idea of individual enlightenment. At the heart of the Theravada conception of enlightenment is the ideal of becoming an arhat, or a worthy person who has freed themselves from the cycle of birth and death by achieving full enlightenment. In addition, where Mahayana views all physical forms as being absent of intrinsic, separate self, Theravada holds a different view of the doctrine of anatman, or the nature of self. Theravada Buddhists believe that the individual ego is a delusion that, when shed, allows a person to experience the bliss of Nirvana. Theravada also emphasizes the thought that enlightenment is achieved through individual efforts without the aid of any external forces. One of the most unique aspects of Theravada is the practice of meditation. Theravada Buddhists practice a type of meditation called Vipassana that involves disciplined self-observation of one’s thoughts and how they are connected. While some adherents of other forms of Buddhism also meditate, the practice is primarily associated with Theravada.

One of the most significant differences between Theravada and other forms of Buddhism is tied directly to its literary tradition. While many Buddhist texts exist, Theravada only formally recognizes the Pali Tipitaka. The central text of the broader Pali Canon, the Pali Tipitaka, is a vital scripture collection that forms the structural and philosophic basis of Theravada. As such, it can be said the overall importance of Pali literature is predominantly a result of its major role in Theravada Buddhism.

Overview

The full canon of Pali literature includes a wide variety of Buddhist texts. Its main and most important component is the Pali Canon, or Tripitaka. Beyond that, many other writings are included as well. Among these other writings are paracanonical texts, commentarial works, historical chronicles, biographies of important Buddhist figures, the Abhidhamma manuals, treatises, and other miscellaneous works.

Pali Canon

The oldest and most important work of Pali literature is the Pali Canon. Also known as the Tipitaka or the “three baskets,” the Pali Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada tradition. Among the most important Buddhist texts, the Pali Canon has a history that dates back to just after the Buddha’s death around 480 BCE. A few months after the Buddha died, a group of five hundred of his disciples came together in the Rajagaha region of what is now India to form the First Buddhist Council. The Council’s main goal was to review and preserve the Buddha’s teachings and rules of discipline. As part of its efforts, the Council turned to a monk named Upali who was thought to have the most complete understanding of the Buddha’s rules of monastic conduct. Upali recited the Buddha’s rules, and the Council formally adopted them. The Council also had the Buddha’s cousin Ananda recite all the Buddha’s sermon and ultimately adopted these as well. Upali and Ananda’s presentations at the First Buddhist Council formed the basis of the first two baskets of the Tipitaka, the Vinaya-pitaka (“Basket of Discipline”) and the Sutta-pitaka (“Basket of Sutras”). Around 250 BCE, the Third Buddhist Council adopted the third basket of the Tipitaka, the Abhidhamma-pitaka (“Basket of Special Teachings”). Up to this point, however, the Tipitaka was strictly oral. It was not until the first century BCE that the Tipitaka was preserved in writing.

The Basket of Discipline is primarily a collection of monastic rules of conduct for monks. It is divided into three separate sections: the Suttavibhanga, the Khandhaka, and the Parivara. The Suttavibhanga, also known as “the Explanation of the Sutta,” is a commentary on the sutta, a set of more than two hundred rules that dictate how monks are meant to live their lives. The rules of the sutta are some of the oldest surviving Buddhist texts. Buddhist monks are expected to recite them twice a month. The Khandhaka contains the rules that the community is expected to follow. The Parivara is a handbook comprising texts that summarize the various rules and procedures within the Vinaya.

The Basket of Sutras is a collection of Buddha's teachings to his disciples. It is divided into four parts: the Dighanikaya, the Majjhimanikaya, the Samyuttanikaya, and the Anguttaranikaya. The Dighanikaya comprises twenty-four texts, including the Mahaparinibbana-Sutta, one of the most well-known works of Buddhist literature. The Majjhimanikaya consists of 152 texts that explain Buddhist teaching through dialogues. The Samyuttanikaya and Anguttaranikaya are shorter texts that present the Buddha’s teachings in different forms.

The Basket of Special Teachings is a collection of philosophical and psychological writings that, when read together as the Kathavatthu, offer differing opinions on the points and ideologies of Buddhist teachings. They also provide a theoretical foundation for understanding the psychological and spiritual phenomena described in the Buddha's sermons and discourses, or suttas.

Beyond the Pali Canon

Although the Pali Canon is the most important and well-known example of Pali literature, it is but one of many Pali works. Also included in the larger canon of Pali literature are a wide variety of commentaries and sub-commentaries on the Tipitaka, paracanonical texts, historical chronicles, biographies, manuals and treatises on the Abhidhamma, and other miscellaneous works.

There are two main collections of commentaries and sub-commentaries in Pali literature. These include the Atthakatha and the Tikas. The Atthakatha is a collection of commentaries on the Tipitaka written in Sri Lanka by authors like Buddhagosa, Dhammapala, Mahanama, and Buddhadatta. These commentaries provide a traditional interpretation of the scriptures. The Tikas are sub-commentaries that function as commentaries on the Atthakatha.

Also included within Pali literature are several paracanonical texts. Some of these include the Nettipakarana and Petakopadesa, the Milindapañha, and the Suttasamgaha. The Nettipakarana (“The Book of Guidance”) and the Petakopadesa (“Instruction on the Pitaka”) are handbooks that offer insight into the interpretation of the Theravada canon. The Milindapañha (“The Questions of King Millinda”) is a dialogue between an Indo-Greek king and a Buddhist monk. The Suttasamgaha is a collection of texts from the Tripitaka.

Numerous historical chronicles and biographies are also found within the canon of Pali literature. Some of the most notable Pali historical chronicles include the Dipavamsa, the Mahavamsa, the Culavamsa, and the Dathavamsa. The Dipavamsa (“The Island Chronicle”) is the source of many accounts of ancient Sri Lankan history. The Mahavamsa (“The Great Chronicle”) is an epic poem that relates more of Sri Lankan history. The Culavamsa (“The Lesser Chronicle”) is a sequel to the Mahavamsa that delves even deeper into the history of Sri Lanka. The Dathavamsa (“The History of the Tooth Relic”) is a chronicle about the famous relic of the tooth of the Buddha. The most important biography in Pali literature is the Jinalankara, a verse poem about the life of the Buddha.

The Pali literary canon also includes an array of manuals and treatises on the Abhidhamma, a collection of ancient Buddhist texts containing scholastic presentations of doctrinal materials found within the suttas. Some of these works include the Abhidhammavatara and the Ruparupa-vibhaga. Other miscellaneous works in Pali literature include a short practice manual called the Vimuttimagga and a key meditation manual known as the Visuddhimagga.

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