Philoctetes by Sophocles

First produced:Philoktētēs, 409 b.c.e. (English translation, 1729)

Type of work: Drama

Type of plot: Tragedy

Time of plot: Antiquity

Locale: Island of Lemnos

Principal characters

• Philoctetes, an abandoned Greek warrior
• Neoptolemus, Achilles’ son
• Odysseus, the king of Ithaca
• A Sailor, disguised as a trader
• Herakles, a Greek immortal
• Chorus of Sailors, under the command of Neoptolemus

The Story:

Odysseus abandons Philoctetes on the barren island of Lemnos after the warrior is bitten on the foot by a snake while preparing to make a sacrifice at the shrine on the island of Chrysa. The wound never heals, and the smell that comes from it and the groans of suffering of Philoctetes are the reasons Odysseus gives for making him an outcast. Philoctetes, however, with his invincible bow, once the property of Herakles, becomes indispensable to the Greeks in their war against Troy. Landing for the second time on Lemnos, Odysseus describes the cave in which Philoctetes lives. Neoptolemus identifies it by the stained bandages drying in the sun, the leaf-stuffed mattress, and the crude wooden cup he finds.

Instructed by Odysseus, Neoptolemus is to lure Philoctetes on board with his bow by declaring that he, too, hates Odysseus because the king deprived him of the weapons of his father, Achilles. Neoptolemus is disgusted by this deception, but wily Odysseus pleads necessity and promises him honor and glory. When Neoptolemus agrees to obey, Odysseus leaves him.

The chorus of sailors reports that they hear the painful approach of Philoctetes. He asks who they are and whether they, too, are Greeks. Imploring their pity, he tells them not to fear him, although he became a savage through solitude and great suffering. Neoptolemus answers Philoctetes, who asks Neoptolemus who he is and why he comes. The young warrior says that he is the son of Achilles and that he does not know Philoctetes, who replies that he must indeed be vile if no word of him reached the Greeks. His wound grew worse and because he is alone on the island he has to use all his energy to remain alive. He shoots birds with his great bow, and, in order that he might drink in winter, he is forced to build a fire to melt the ice. He curses the Atreidae and Odysseus, who abandoned him, and wishes that they might suffer his agony. Neoptolemus, answering as he was instructed, says that he, too, curses Odysseus, who deprived him of his rights and robbed him of his father’s arms. He asserts that he intends to sail for home.

Philoctetes, declaring that their grief is equal, wonders also why Ajax allows these injustices. He is told that Ajax is also dead. Philoctetes is certain that Odysseus is alive, and this fact Neoptolemus confirms. After hearing of the death of other friends, Philoctetes agrees with Neoptolemus that war inevitably kills the good men but only occasionally and by chance kills the bad. Neoptolemus stresses his determination never to return to Troy. He then says good-bye to Philoctetes, who implores them not to abandon him and to suffer for one day the inconvenience of having him on board the ship on which Neoptolemus is sailing. When he begs on his knees not to be left alone again, the chorus expresses their willingness to take him with them. After Neoptolemus agrees, Philoctetes praises the day that brings them together and declares himself bound in friendship to the young warrior for all time.

As Odysseus planned, a sailor disguised as a trader comes to help Neoptolemus in tricking Philoctetes. He says, hoping to persuade Philoctetes to go quickly on board, that Odysseus is pursuing him in order to compel him to rejoin the Greek army, for Helenus, Priam’s son, prophesied that Philoctetes is the one man who will defeat Troy. Philoctetes swears that he will never go with his most hated enemy, and the disguised trader returns to his ship.

Neoptolemus asks permission to hold the mighty bow while Philoctetes prepares to leave the island. Suddenly the wound in Philoctetes’ foot begins to pain him beyond endurance. He hands the bow to Neoptolemus and writhes on the ground until the abscess bursts and the blood flows. The sailors advise Neoptolemus to leave with the bow while the exhausted man sleeps. Neoptolemus refuses, for the bow is useless without Philoctetes.

When Philoctetes awakens, Neoptolemus reveals to him that he came to take the warrior to fight against Troy. Philoctetes refuses to go. When Neoptolemus insists on keeping the bow, Philoctetes, enraged and despairing, curses such treachery and declares that he will starve without his weapon. Neoptolemus’s loyalties are divided between duty and compassion, but before he decides on the course to pursue, Odysseus arrives and demands that Philoctetes accompany them. When he remains adamant, Odysseus and Neoptolemus leave, taking with them the bow.

The chorus of sailors assures Philoctetes that it would be best to fight on the side of the Greeks, but, out of pride, he is determined not to fight alongside the men who made him an outcast. He begs for a sword to kill himself. Then Neoptolemus returns, followed by Odysseus; he decides to redress the wrong he did Philoctetes and to return the bow. Odysseus, unable to change the young warrior’s decision, goes to tell the other Greeks of this act of treachery. Meanwhile, Neoptolemus again tries to persuade Philoctetes to join them. When Philoctetes again refuses, Neoptolemus, in spite of the return of Odysseus, gives back the bow. He is then forced to keep Philoctetes from killing Odysseus.

When Odysseus again leaves them, Neoptolemus reveals the whole of Helenus’s prophecy, which foretold that the wound would be cured when Philoctetes returns and that, together with Neoptolemus, he will conquer Troy. Philoctetes, declaring Odysseus was faithless once and will be so again, implores Neoptolemus to take him home, as he first promised. Neoptolemus, however, is afraid that the Greeks will attack his country in retaliation. Philoctetes swears that he will defend the country with his bow.

Before they can leave, Herakles, from whom Philoctetes inherited the bow, appears on the rocks above the cave. He informs Philoctetes that Zeus made a decision. Philoctetes should return to the Greek army where he will be healed. Also, with Neoptolemus, he will kill Paris and take Troy. Philoctetes, heeding the voice of the immortal, willingly leaves Lemnos to fulfill his destiny.

Bibliography

Beer, Josh. Sophocles and the Tragedy of Athenian Democracy. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2004. Analyzes Sophocles’ plays within the context of Athenian democracy in the fifth century b.c.e., focusing on the political issues in the dramas. Examines Sophocles’ dramatic techniques and how they “revolutionized the concept of dramatic space.” Chapter 9 discusses Philoctetes.

Gardiner, Cynthia P. The Sophoclean Chorus: A Study of Character and Function. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1987. Uses Philoctetes to reexamine the undervalued role of the chorus in Greek drama and how Sophocles skillfully uses choral odes for dramatic irony. Discusses the extent to which the chorus participates in the plot of deception.

Garvie, A. F. The Plays of Sophocles. Bristol, England: Bristol Classical, 2005. Concise analysis of Sophocles’ plays, with a chapter devoted to Philoctetes. Focuses on Sophocles’ tragic thinking, the concept of the Sophoclean hero, and the structure of his plays.

Kitto, H. D. F. Greek Tragedy: A Literary Study. London: Methuen, 1939. Reprint. New York: Routledge, 2002. An excellent study of Sophocles’ innovations, such as his emphasis on character development, especially of Neoptolemus in Philoctetes, which Kitto claims has a wider range than any other character in Greek tragedy.

Kitzinger, Margaret Rachel. The Choruses of Sophokles’ “Antigone” and “Philoktetes”: A Dance of Words. Boston: Brill, 2008. Analyzes the function of the chorus in the play. Argues that the chorus views the action from the perspective of the dancers and the singers; the chorus has a particular way of communicating on humankind’s place in the larger order defined by how the singers and dancers reflect that order.

Morwood, James. The Tragedies of Sophocles. Exeter, England: Bristol Phoenix Press, 2008. Analyzes each of Sophocles’ seven extant plays, with chapter 7 devoted to Philoctetes. Discusses several modern productions and adaptations of the tragedies.

Ringer, Mark. “Electra” and the Empty Urn: Metatheater and Role Playing in Sophocles. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Focuses on elements of metatheater, or “theater within theater,” and the ironic self-awareness in Sophocles’ plays. Analyzes plays-within-plays, characters who are in rivalry with the playwright, and characters who assume roles in order to deceive one another. Philoctetes is discussed in chapter 6.

Roisman, Hanna M. Sophocles: Philoctetes. London: Duckworth, 2005. A companion to the play, discussing its initial performances, characters, reception over time, and the mythology on which it is based. Places the play within the context of ancient Greek theater and the historical events of its time.

Segal, Charles. Tragedy and Civilization: An Interpretation of Sophocles. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982. Develops the idea of the civilizing power of tragedy and the importance of society, language, and friendship. Discusses the difference between heroic and civilized values and how Sophocles juxtaposes them.