The Queen of Sheba

Author: Traditional

Time Period: 999 BCE–1 BCE

Country or Culture: Ethiopia; Southern Levant

Genre: Legend

Overview

The Queen of Sheba is most widely known through her brief but memorable appearances in the Hebrew Bible and in the Qur’an. She has been celebrated in story and song throughout Europe and the Middle East. It is, however, Ethiopian tradition that has most expanded the legend of this mysterious and elusive figure. According to Ethiopian lore, she ruled wisely at a time and in a place where women were hereditary rulers, until she broke the custom by relinquishing her throne to her son, Menelik I (also called Bayna-Lehkem and David II), believed to have been begotten by the fabled Israelite king Solomon. Though she is given no personal name in either the Bible or the Qur’an, Islamic oral tradition calls her Bilqis or Balqis, while Josephus, a Jewish Roman historian of the first century CE, identifies her as Nicaule in his Jewish Antiquities. Among the Ethiopian people, to whom she means the most, she is known as Makeda. In the New Testament, Jesus refers to her as the Queen of the South.

Outside the holy books of the Jews, Christians, and Muslims, the Queen of Sheba belongs to varying legends, not all of them in agreement. Her historical reality is also questioned by many secular scholars and archeologists, despite the persistence of her legend. Assuming she really did live and reign, even the land of her origin and the people over whom she ruled are open to conjecture, as the legends differ in where they locate her geographically. Josephus says that she is the queen of Egypt and Ethiopia. Nubia, south of ancient Egypt, was believed to have been ruled in ancient times by a series of warrior queens, and some have suggested Sheba was one of them. Another long tradition associates her with Saba, a monarchy in ancient Yemen. Still others have suggested that she may have been the ruler of a trading colony in northwestern Arabia.

The varying versions agree that her kingdom possesses great wealth and that she is well endowed with servants, camels, and other beasts of burden. Gold, silver, precious jewels, and valuable spices are plentiful in her realm. She is also a fiercely independent woman, often described as a virgin queen regnant, not a royal consort. Moreover, though she seeks advice from her counselors, she ultimately makes her own decision to embark on her famous visit to the court of Solomon.

Though the biblical account of Sheba’s visit to Jerusalem makes clear that she sought wisdom, later embellishments proposed a romantic liaison between her and Solomon, who was known as much for his love of foreign women as for his wisdom. But because Solomon’s kingdom was situated at a trade crossroad, a more pragmatic motive may have sent her traveling: a trade mission to promote the coveted spices produced in her realm.

The fullest account of the Queen of Sheba’s visit to Solomon’s court is found in the treasured Ethiopian document Kebra Nagast, which has been available in English since the 1922 publication of a translation by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge. The work is venerated by the Ethiopian people, considered proof of their association with the ancient Israelites and of the Solomonic line of their legitimate rulers, ending with Haile Selassie in the twentieth century. This last emperor designated himself the Lion of Judah and used the lion on his crest. The Kebra Nagast also addresses the patriotic longings of the Ethiopians by identifying their country as a new promised land. Because the majority of the Ethiopian people accepted Christianity from early times, their kinship with Jesus, a Jew, is also affirmed by the document.

Ethiopians believe the text was found in the library of St. Sofia in Constantinople (now Istanbul) in the third century CE, but European scholars believe it to be a fourteenth-century compilation of Abyssinian history and folklore. In it, King Solomon is reported to have made the prophecy that Ethiopia would usurp Israel as the Promised Land favored by God.

The third important figure in the Sheba legend is her son, Menelik (Menyelek), who, according to the Kebra Nagast, bore an extraordinary resemblance to his father, Solomon. He is credited with founding the royal dynasty, which lasted centuries, ending with Haile Selassie. Like his parents, he is remembered as a seeker after wisdom and is believed to have transported the Ark of the Covenant from Jerusalem to Aksum, where it is said to lodge to this very day.

The legends of the Queen of Sheba have been important to people of several nationalities and cultural heritages for a number of reasons. They not only support national aspirations and pride but also associate Sheba with the ancient wisdom tradition, which transcended tribal and national boundaries. Another reason the Queen of Sheba is venerated today is that she is, however shadowy her historical authenticity, one of the relatively few dominant female figures of ancient narratives. While other women have sought domestic security or prided themselves on their beauty, taking subservient roles to men, Sheba dominated her own court and was an equal in foreign ones. Though relatively little is known of the real woman, Sheba has cast a strong shadow down the ages and continues to speak with a pertinent message.

Summary

The legend of the Queen of Sheba is one of the most pervasive of the ancient Near East. The Hebrew Bible mentions the queen’s visit to Solomon rather briefly as part of the long saga of Israel’s most majestic king. This episode is found in 1 Kings 10:1–13 and reiterated in 2 Chronicles 9:1–12. According to the Hebrew Bible, Sheba in her distant land hears rumors of the wisdom and wealth of Solomon. A lover of wisdom herself, she arrives in Jerusalem after a long trip with a large retinue. She comes to test the king with “hard questions” in order to find out if there is truth to the reports she has heard (1 Kgs 10:1). According to the second verse, “she communed with him of all that was in her heart.” The more philosophical Jews of the first century CE believed these questions probed the nature of divinity and the meaning of life. But the oral tradition regarded them as clever riddles designed to leave Solomon speechless. All agree that whatever the questions are, he provides impressive answers. In his great wisdom, Solomon is able to answer all her questions and resolve all her perplexities. After her dialogues with him, Sheba confesses that she had not believed the reports heard in her own land of his wisdom and prosperity. Now, having seen with her own eyes, she realizes that not even the half of it had been told. Somewhat enviously, she concludes: “Happy are thy men, happy are these thy servants, which stand continually before thee, and that hear thy wisdom. / Blessed be the Lord thy God, which delighted in thee, to set thee on the throne of Israel: because the Lord loved Israel for ever, therefore made he thee king, to do judgment and justice” (1 Kgs 10:8–9).

“And the Queen Makeda spake unto King Solomon, saying ‘Blessed art thou, my Lord, in that much wisdom and understanding have been given unto thee. For myself I only wish that I could be as one of the least of thine handmaidens, so that I could wash thy feet, and hearken to thy wisdom, and apprehend thy understanding, and serve thy majesty, and enjoy thy wisdom. O how greatly have pleased me thy answering and the sweetness of thy voice, and the beauty of thy going, and the graciousness of thy words, and the readiness thereof.’”

Sheba, herself from a wealthy land, is also impressed by the elegance and lavishness of Solomon’s court. Many valuable gifts are exchanged between the sovereigns, and Solomon offers her everything her heart desires. When the queen finally departs for her own land, it is with a bit of wistfulness and an admiration for the god who has bestowed such wisdom and discernment in judgment on his anointed, Solomon. The biblical account does not suggest that either a sexual union or a religious conversion took place.

Josephus’s tale largely follows the biblical account, though he had access to subsequent Jewish legends surrounding the queen and the Solomon of history and lore. In his Jewish Antiquities, Josephus writes that after building and dedicating the temple—a major achievement during the reign of Solomon and the fulfillment of a dream of his father, David—Solomon sets about constructing a sumptuous palace for himself, thirteen years in the making (140). Lined with columns, the palace is built of white marble and the cedars of Lebanon and decorated with much gold and silver. For himself, the king commissions an ivory throne.

Solomon also constructs “towers into the walls around Jerusalem to fortify it” (140). He builds several cities, complete with springs and wells in the desert, as well as a fleet of ships, presumably to carry fine goods for trade in foreign lands. Sheba, here named the queen of Ethiopia and Egypt, is described as both “a great lover of wisdom” and a woman of great wealth herself, who, hearing rumors about Solomon, decides to visit his realm herself and “test his wisdom” (140).

Although Josephus acknowledges Solomon’s habit of marrying foreign women, there is no mention of any liaison with Sheba, a woman who, according to his characterization of her, would hardly take second place to any man. Likewise, though Josephus remarks on the impression the temple sacrifices make upon Sheba, there is no mention of any conversion to monotheism.

The Holy Qur’an provides additional information not found in earlier written sources. In the sura known as “The Ants,” Solomon (or Suleiman) is described as conversant with animals. When a bird brings him news from the land of Sheba, where a woman is found ruling over the people, he is intrigued. She is wealthy and virtuous, he is told, but she and her subjects, unfortunately, are sun worshippers and do not know the true God. Satan, Solomon is assured, has seduced them from the straight path. The king sends a message to Sheba by the bird “in the Name of God, the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy” (Q27:30). She receives the message, which admonishes humility and extends an invitation for a state visit. There is an implied threat in Solomon’s message, and the queen, fearing an invasion, decides to send a gift and await a reply. She also consults her nobles, who defer to her own judgment. But Solomon replies through her envoy. He suspects she intends to pacify him with gold and tells her that God has given him a gift far greater than riches. He instructs her servant to return and warn her that her people will be humbled by the Israelites.

In the Qur’an, Solomon is harsher than in other versions. He orders Sheba’s throne to be miraculously transported to him. Then he commands that it be altered and waits to see if she will discern the changes. When at last she arrives in Jerusalem in person, she recognizes her throne. Then, a curious detail enters the narrative. When Sheba arrives at the palace, it has been paved with polished glass. Because she thinks it is water, she lifts her clothing, exposing her feet.

As the visit progresses, Solomon concludes that admirable though Sheba may be, false gods have led her astray. She admits to having sinned but promises to submit with Solomon to Allah, the god of the universe. The message is clear: Allah alone controls the universe, and it is essential for all to acknowledge and worship him, just as the queen and Solomon do.

By far the fullest account of the legend of the Queen of Sheba comes from Ethiopia, the country that exalts her above all others. Her story is told at length in the Kebra Nagast, the national epic, which supports the Solomonic origin of the Ethiopian monarchy, locates the lost Ark of the Covenant at Aksum, and asserts that God transferred his earthly abode from Jerusalem to Aksum.

In its fuller portraits of both Solomon and Sheba, the Kebra Nagast makes several additions to their legend. A merchant named Tamrin, who had been on a trade mission to Jerusalem, returns to his native land and his queen, here called Makeda. Though Tamrin has left the luxury and comfort of Solomon’s court with reluctance, duty to his own queen has called him. He returns not empty handed but laden with costly gifts for Makeda. She listens to his tales of the wonders of the land of Solomon the Wise. He speaks of the graciousness, authority, and fair judgments of its king. He tells her how generously Solomon treats even his servants and how he listens to them, just as they partake daily of his own wisdom.

Each morning, Tamrin tells the queen more and more about Solomon, until she is filled with a yearning to behold the mighty king for herself. But the journey to Jerusalem is long, difficult, and dangerous. It is God, in his own providential design, who increases the desire in Makeda’s heart to behold Solomon in all his glory.

Speaking to her people of her thirst for wisdom, Makeda prepares for her journey to Jerusalem. She explains how wisdom surpasses gold, silver, and precious stones in value, satisfies more than choice meat, gladdens more than wine, and offers protection and comfort. It is the best of all treasures, she concludes, and she loves wisdom as if it were her own child. Her nobles, slaves, handmaidens, and advisers all agree and bless her journey, finding it fitting that the wisest of queens should meet the wisest of kings.

The journey requires many preparations and is initiated with much pomp. Her retinue includes, in addition to many attendants, “797 camels and mules and asses innumerable” (Budge lxviii), all laden with treasures from her land.

After many days, she arrives in Jerusalem and presents her precious gifts to Solomon, who receives her as befits her station. He provides her with fine quarters in the royal palace, near his own apartments. Night and day, she and her servants are given the finest food and wine. Fifty singers, evenly split among men and women, are engaged to entertain her. She is presented with the finest clothes. Every day, she converses with Solomon, observing how justly he deals with his people. Never has she known a man so eloquent and graceful in all his movements. She is most moved by his reverence for God. In his supplications, he does not ask God for military victory, long life, riches, or renown. He asks instead for the wisdom and understanding that can only come from God.

Makeda agrees with Solomon that humans are worth nothing unless they learn to show kindness and love. Only fools live in sin and engage in magic, sorcery, and idol worship. Compassion, humility, and the fear of God give human beings their only majesty. Though some of her subjects still bow to graven images of stone and wood, the queen explains that she and most of her people worship the sun, sustenance of all life, a fit object of reverence until one learns of the true god. The queen tells Solomon that she has heard of the wonderful works of the Israelites’ god. Solomon then instructs her in the worship of this true god, the lord of the universe, creator of angels and humans. The queen, easily persuaded, informs him: “From this moment I will not worship the sun, but will worship the Creator of the sun, the God of Israel” (Budge 29). Furthermore, she expresses her intention to instruct her kingdom to do likewise.

For six months, she remains in Jerusalem, according to the Kebra Nagast, conversing daily with Solomon as with an equal, marveling that even the birds and wild animals come to “hearken unto his voice” (30). But finally, somewhat sadly, duty calls, and it is time to return to her own land. When she so informs Solomon, he notes again her extraordinary beauty and concludes that God, for some purpose, has sent her to him from the ends of the earth. A collector of foreign women, Solomon wishes to add her to his harem. Already he had married four hundred women from surrounding nations and taken six hundred concubines, reasoning that together they will produce progeny loyal to God. Yet, so far, there have been no heirs.

The Kebra Nagast explains with delicacy that “those early people lived under the law of the flesh, for the grace of the Holy Spirit had not been given unto them” to institute the law of monogamy (Budge 31). Reluctant to see Makeda leave, Solomon concocts a seduction plan. He prepares splendid quarters for her, decorated with carpets, marble, and gems. Costly incense is sprinkled heavily about. For the feast of departure, Solomon sets out many dishes, all highly spiced, and drinks mingled with vinegar. Fish and other dishes are served, all seasoned with pepper. When Solomon bids her goodnight, he says, “Take thou thine ease here for love’s sake until daybreak” (33). Probably knowing his reputation as a lover of women, she makes him promise that he will not force himself upon her, since she is a virgin and unprotected. Solomon gives his promise, but on one condition, that she take nothing that belongs to him. Makeda reminds him that her own kingdom has great wealth and there is nothing in his palace that she desires.

Solomon tells a servant to place a vessel of cool water not far from the queen’s bed. He himself pretends to retire for the night. The queen, thirsty after her heavy meal, reaches for the water. At that moment, Solomon appears, seizing her hand. She has tried to consume his water without permission, thereby breaking her oath and freeing him from his, which she readily acknowledges. During the night Solomon then spends with Makeda, he has a brilliant dream in which a divine radiance leaves Israel and flies away to Ethiopia, where it shines ever more brightly.

Makeda had already reigned for six years in her own country and was a woman of excellent reputation, held deeply in the affections of her people. Solomon, knowing this, agrees to send her away, again with many fine gifts. But most important of all, he gives her a ring from his little finger as a token of remembrance. This ring, he says, will be a sign if a child is born of their brief union, and he hopes one day to see this child.

On her way back to her own land, after nine months and five days, the queen gives birth to a son. He does not learn the identity of his father until the age of twelve, but as a man, he visits Jerusalem and meets his father face to face. Everyone sees immediately that he has the likeness of Solomon. Assisted by an angel and the high priest Azariah, this son steals the Ark of the Covenant, moving it to Ethiopia where, many believe, it remains. Solomon at first angrily pursues the thief of the ark but, when informed by an angel that his own son is the culprit, concedes its loss.

Long after Solomon’s reign was only the memory of a golden age, the Queen of Sheba would remain a symbol of wisdom and graciousness. In Matthew 12:42 (and repeated almost identically in Luke 11:31), Jesus says, “The queen of the south shall rise up in the judgment with this generation, and shall condemn it: for she came from the uttermost parts of the earth to hear the wisdom of Solomon; and behold, a greater than Solomon is here.”

Medieval Christianity built Sheba’s legend further, associating her with the much-sought-after true cross. According to Jacobus de Voragine’s Golden Legend (seemingly influenced by the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus), during her visit to Solomon’s court, she has a vision and venerates a tree whose wood is later used to fashion the cross on which Jesus is crucified.

Medieval Christians were also intrigued by the Song of Songs from the Hebrew Bible. From ancient times attributed to Solomon, this collection of seemingly secular, even erotic love lyrics became associated in the popular mind with the Queen of Sheba. “I am black, but comely, O ye daughters of Jerusalem” (1:5) is the self-description of the bride figure in the Song of Songs, and she describes her beloved as “fair” and having “doves’ eyes” (1:15). Song of Songs 3:11 even states, “Behold King Solomon . . . in the day of his espousals.”

In Jewish extrabiblical lore, additional details were added to the career of the Queen of Sheba. In the Targum Sheni, a hoopoe bird leads Solomon to contemplate the wealthy land of Sheba. The dust of that land, he is told, is more valuable than gold, and the silver is as plentiful as dirt. Trees growing there originated in paradise before the Fall of Man. The hoopoe becomes Solomon’s first messenger to the queen, conveying the command that she visit him. Else, he threatens many misfortunes. To ward off possible invasion, she loads her caravan to make the journey. When she arrives, he receives her grandly in a glass house. Thinking that Solomon is seated in water—so polished is the floor of his receiving chamber—she lifts her clothing as if to wade toward him. Thus, he notices that her feet are hairy like those of an animal. This is the only tarnish on her beauty, and the disfigurement features significantly in subsequent tales about Sheba. The Targum Sheni also records several riddles Sheba is said to have given Solomon to test his cleverness. They are much like the riddles solved by other figures of folklore and must once have been found amusing and challenging. Solomon answers them quickly and correctly.

Bibliography

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