Refrain in poetry
A refrain in poetry is a device characterized by the repetition of a word, phrase, line, or entire verse within a poem, typically found at the end of stanzas. This technique often employs verbatim repetition, though poets may also vary the wording to enhance thematic elements. Refrains are prevalent in many forms of poetry, particularly classical styles like the ballade and villanelle, which have specific structural requirements for their use. The origins of refrains can be traced back to ancient texts and traditions, including the Book of the Dead in Egypt and various ancient Greek and Roman works. Over time, refrains became a recognized feature in medieval ecclesiastical literature, evolving as a tool for memorization and performance in an era of widespread illiteracy. In contemporary poetry and music, refrains are commonly used to emphasize significant themes and are also utilized in prose and speeches, as seen in notable works by figures like Sojourner Truth and Martin Luther King Jr. Their adaptability across genres highlights their enduring relevance in conveying powerful messages.
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Refrain in poetry
A refrain is a poetic device marked by the repetition of a word, turn of phrase, line, set of lines, or an entire verse within a poem or any of its internal divisions. Though refrains can occur virtually anywhere within a poem, poets have traditionally placed them at or near the end of stanzas. While refrains also tend to use verbatim repetitions, poets sometimes vary their wording and phrasing for thematic effect.
Refrains can appear in any type of poetry, but they are most associated with classical forms. Several poetic forms with fixed structures also prompt poets to use refrains to satisfy their conventional requirements. Examples include the ballade, a lyrical form that originated in medieval France, and the villanelle, a strictly structured form with repeated lines.
Background
The refrain has ancient origins, with the form appearing in the Book of the Dead, an Egyptian text that first appeared in written form during Egypt’s New Kingdom period (1550 BCE–1077 BCE). Refrains subsequently became a feature of multiple ancient literary traditions, including those of ancient Greece and Rome. They also appear in early Hebrew compositions, setting a precedent that facilitated their migration into Judeo-Christian hymns.
Scholars have debated the foundational source of the refrain’s introduction into poetry, with multiple experts, including Alfred Jeanroy and Nicolaas H.J. Boogaard, tracing its emergence to the rondet et carole, a form popularized by the French troubadours of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. However, other experts believe its poetic origins ultimately derive from oral traditions. A consensus among scholars holds that the refrain became an identifiable feature of poetry as ecclesiastical literary traditions began to merge with their vernacular counterparts during the Middle Ages (ca. 476 CE–ca. 1450 CE).
The etymology of the word “refrain” supports the notion that refrains, as a formal choral and poetic device, have origins in medieval France. Experts trace the emergence of the word to the late fourteenth century, when the term refreine first appeared in French as a direct reference to lyrical compositions. Literary historians theorize that refrains may have been popularized as a memorization tool, with regular repetitions of lines and verses making it easier for lyricists and performers to remember longer-form compositions in an age when most people were not literate.
By the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, refrains were no longer exclusive to music and lyrical poetry and had permeated into written literature in both the formal verse and blank verse styles. Scholars note that, by this juncture, refrains had acquired a signature rhetorical quality, often functioning within a poem as a kind of self-referential allusion. Across the centuries, subsequent generations of poets have tended to use them to draw attention to particularly important or thematically impactful passages. Poets have also developed many innovative variations on refrains, bending strict traditional conventions to include looser styles that offer greater levels of creative freedom.
Overview
Traditionally, refrains use verbatim repetition at regular intervals throughout a poem. One commonly cited example comes from “When that I was and a tiny little boy,” a lyrical passage in Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare. In this passage, Shakespeare repeats the line “For the rain, it raineth every day” at the end of two stanzas, one about youth and the next about adulthood.
Refrains also include three distinct types, known as the repetend, chorus, and burden. A repetend is defined by the ordered or unordered repetition of specific words within a poem. In poetry, a chorus is a phrase or verse regularly repeated throughout a poem, usually between stanzas that contain variable content. In the traditions of lyrical poetry, a composition’s regular stanzas were delivered by an individual, and choruses were typically spoken or sung by multiple performers. The burden is the most familiar refrain type. It is defined by the regular repetition of phrases or lines at specific intervals throughout a poem.
Several poetic forms, including the ballade and the villanelle, also demand the use of refrains to satisfy their structural requirements. A ballade is a form of narrative poetry that originated in France and consists of three eight-line stanzas and a concluding four-line stanza known as an envoi. Ballades follow a strict rhyme scheme, and each stanza ends with the same line, which is known as the refrain line. The villanelle is another rigidly formalized type of poem comprised of five rhyming three-line verses known as tercets, which are punctuated with a four-line quatrain that includes repeated rhymes and refrains. “Do not go gentle into that good night,” written by the Welsh poet Dylan Thomas, is a well-known example of a villanelle.
In the modern era, refrains have become strongly associated with popular music, as many musical genres regularly use lyrical structures that alternate rhyming verses of variable content with a repeated chorus. Refrains can also be used as a rhetorical device in prose formats and speeches. Abolitionist Sojourner Truth used the refrain as a rhetorical device in an untitled 1851 speech commonly known as “Ain’t I a Woman?” In the speech, Truth punctuates multiple passages by repeating that rhetorical question, which she uses to challenge prevailing social attitudes toward women and their capabilities. “I Have a Dream,” a famous speech delivered by civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr., in 1963, also makes effective use of the refrain as a rhetorical device.
Bibliography
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Saltzstein, Jennifer. The Refrain and the Rise of the Vernacular in Medieval French Music and Poetry. Rochester, NY: D.S. Brewer, 2013.
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