Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong
"Romance of the Three Kingdoms," a historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong, is a seminal work in Chinese literature, written in the 14th century. Set during the tumultuous period following the decline of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the narrative explores the rise and fall of various warlords and kingdoms as they vie for power. The central figures include Ts'ao Ts'ao, a cunning politician ruling over the kingdom of Wei, Liu Pei, who becomes the ruler of Shu with the help of his strategist Chu-ko Liang, and Sun Ch'üan, the leader of Wu. The novel intricately weaves themes of loyalty, betrayal, and strategy, encapsulated in significant historical events such as the Battle of Red Cliff, where the forces of Shu and Wu unite against Ts'ao Ts'ao.
As the saga unfolds, it examines the complexities of human relationships and the challenges of leadership amidst chaos. Eventually, the power struggles lead to the rise of the Ssu-ma family in the Wei kingdom, culminating in the establishment of a new dynasty. "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" is not only a captivating tale of ambition and warfare but also serves as a rich cultural text, reflecting the values and philosophies of its time. Its enduring influence can be seen in various adaptations and its integral role in Chinese cultural identity.
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Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong
First published:Sanguo zhi yanyi, fourteenth century (English translation, 1925)
Type of work: Novel
Type of plot: Historical
Time of plot: c. 180-c. 280
Locale: China
Principal characters
Liu Pei , a distant descendant of the royal family of the Han Dynasty and the founder of the Shu KingdomKuan Yü , Liu Pei’s sworn brother, later apotheosized as the god of warChang Fei , the sworn brother of Liu and Kuan and a blunt soldier of great prowessChu-ko Liang , chief strategist and eventually the prime minister to Liu Pei and to his weakling successorTs’ao Ts’ao , the founder of the Wei Kingdom, noted for his unscrupulous resourcefulnessSun Ch’üan , the founder of the Wu KingdomChou Yü , Sun Ch’üan’s brilliant military commander, perpetually piqued by Chu-ko Liang’s superior intelligenceChao Yün , a brave general of the Shu Han KingdomLü Pu , an unprincipled and matchless warrior famous for his romantic involvement with the beauty Tiao Ch’anSsu-ma I , the founder of the all-powerful Ssu-ma family in the Wei KingdomChiang Wei , Chu-ko Liang’s successor
The Story:
When the Yellow Turban rebellion is finally quashed, the many soldiers of fortune who take part in its suppression seize power for themselves, thus precipitating the downfall of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Among these the most shrewd and successful politician is Ts’ao Ts’ao, who already attracted a large following of able strategists and warriors. After the systematic elimination of his many rivals, such as Tung Cho, Lü Pu, Yuan Shao, and Yuan Shu, he rules over North China as the king of Wei, subjecting the Han Emperor and his court to great indignity.
Liu Pei, who also rose to fame during the Yellow Turban rebellion, is for a long time doing very poorly, despite the legendary prowess of his sworn brothers, Kuan Yü and Chang Fei. It is not until he seeks out Chu-ko Liang and makes him his chief strategist that his fortunes begin to improve. In time he rules over Szechwan as the king of Shu.
While Liu Pei is beginning to mend his fortunes, the only man who blocks Ts’ao Ts’ao’s territorial ambitions is Sun Ch’üan, who inherited from his father and older brother the rich kingdom of Wu, south of the Yangtze. When Ts’ao Ts’ao finally decides to cross the Yangtze and subdue Wu, Sun Ch’üan and Liu Pei form an alliance, and the combined strategy of their respective military commanders, Chou Yü and Chu-ko Liang, subject Ts’ao Ts’ao’s forces to a crushing defeat in the Battle of Red Cliff. After this victory Liu Pei goes to Szechwan, and the precarious balance of power of the Three Kingdoms is established. The friendly relationship between Shu and Wu does not last long. Kuan Yü, entrusted with the vital task of governing the province of Hupeh, adjacent to the Wu territory, antagonizes Sun Ch’üan, and in the subsequent military struggle he is killed. Liu Pei now vows to conquer Wu; against the sage advice of Chu-ko Liang, who wants to conciliate Wu so as to counter their more dangerous common enemy, Wei, he leads a personal expedition against Wu and suffers a disastrous defeat. Liu Pei dies soon afterward.
Liu Pei’s son and successor is a moronic weakling. Out of loyalty to his late master, however, Chu-ko Liang is determined to serve him and to improve the fortunes of Shu. He makes peace with Wu and leads several expeditions against Wei. These campaigns end in a stalemate. Overburdened with work and handicapped by the lack of able generals (of the “Five Tiger Warriors” of Liu Pei’s day, only Chao Yün remains, an old fighter as intrepid as ever), Chu-ko Liang can no longer direct his campaigns with his usual brilliance. Moreover, the Wei commander, Ssu-ma I, whose family becomes increasingly powerful in the Wei court following the death of Ts’ao Ts’ao, is in many ways his match. Finally Chu-ko Liang dies of physical exhaustion.
By that time the Ssu-mas usurp the power of Wei and subject Ts’ao Ts’ao’s descendants to as much cruelty and torture as Ts’ao Ts’ao and his immediate successor subjected the Han emperors. Wu and Shu weaken. Although Chiang Wei, the Shu general, try bravely to stem the tide, he is overwhelmed by the numerical strength of the invading Wei forces, under the command of T’eng Ai and Chung Hui. Soon after the death of Chiang Wei, the kings of Shu and Wu surrender. Ssu-ma Yen, Ssu-ma I’s grandson, now rules as the first Emperor of China.
Bibliography
Besio, Kimberly, and Constantine Tung, eds. “Three Kingdoms” and Chinese Culture. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2007. Collection of essays interpreting the cultural, historical, and literary significance of Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Includes an introduction providing an overview of the novel; an article on values in the Ming novel by Moss Roberts, who has translated the novel into English; and discussions of the novel’s “structure of tragic consciousness,” its notion of appropriateness, and its historical sources and contexts.
Hsia, C. T. The Classic Chinese Novel: A Critical Introduction. New York: Columbia University Press, 1968. Contains an introductory analysis of Romance of the Three Kingdoms that is one of the best starting points for appreciation of this novel. Insightful regarding the conflict between the claims of statecraft and of personal loyalties.
Lu Xun. A Brief History of Chinese Fiction. Translated by Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1976. The section on Romance of the Three Kingdoms includes an interesting comparison of the early version of the novel with the finished version.
McGreal, Ian P., ed. “Romance of the Three Kingdoms.” In Great Literature of the Eastern World: The Major Works of Prose, Poetry, and Drama from China, India, Japan, Korea, and the Middle East. New York: HarperCollins, 1996. Discusses Luo Guanzhong’s life and the major themes of his novel. Provides a critical evaluation of the novel and bibliographies of his works in English translation and of secondary sources about him.
Plaks, Andrew H. The Four Masterworks of the Ming Novel. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987. Insightful and in-depth interpretations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms and the other three novels of the Ming Dynasty.
‗‗‗‗‗‗‗, ed. Chinese Narrative: Critical and Theoretical Essays. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977. Two essays compare Romance of the Three Kingdoms with other Chinese literary masterpieces.
Rolston, David L., ed. How to Read the Chinese Novel. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990. A pioneering collection of translated essays by major premodern Chinese critics. The essay on Romance of the Three Kingdoms provides a vivid sense of how the Chinese interpreted this novel centuries ago.