Teaching English and Literature

Teaching English and Literature falls under the umbrella of English language arts education. While there are a variety of methods for teaching English language arts in grades K12 and the curricula can vary from state to state and even school to school, there are some commonly used methods for teaching English and Literature, and there are several established literacy standards that students must attain.

Responsive teaching and constructivist approaches are two of the more frequently used methods. In addition to the standards recommended by the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) and the International Reading Association (IRA), schools must also meet the requirements set forth by the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB).

Keywords Constructivist Learning; Cooperative Learning; Cultural Diversity; English Language Arts; International Reading Association (IRA); Literacy; Literature; Multicultural Literature; National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE); Reading Comprehension; Responsive Teaching

Overview

Teaching English and literature is taught under the umbrella of English language arts education. This area of education encompasses teaching basic reading comprehension and writing skills in primary schools, developing those skills further in the middle and high school years by teaching literature and writing, and ensuring that students achieve certain literacy standards by the time they graduate from high school.

Educational Standards

Standards for the English Language Arts

Since educational policy falls under the jurisdiction of the states, the methods for teaching English language arts vary; however, the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) in conjunction with the International Reading Association (IRA) established Standards for the English Language Arts in 1996. These national associations are comprised of educators devoted to teaching English language arts at all levels of education, and many states use these standards as benchmarks when developing curricula for teaching English and Literature.

The purpose of the twelve standards is to encourage schools to develop curriculum and teaching methods that require students to read a variety of literature that ultimately meets the demands of society and the workplace. By using different strategies to develop writing skills, students are also taught to communicate with a variety of people. In short, the goal of the standards and the essence of English language arts education is to enable students to achieve high levels of literacy so that they can "pursue life's goals and participate fully as informed, productive members of society" (National Council of Teachers of English, 1996).

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001

In addition to the standards set forth by the NCTE and the IRA, schools must adhere to the literacy requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB). This is a federal law enacted by the US Congress that requires all children to attain proficiency in English language arts and mathematics. In order to measure students' progress, states must employ educational testing and there can be serious consequences for schools that fail to adhere to the performance requirements mandated by NCLB. The proficiency requirements are to be fully implemented by the year 2014. Moreover, there has been some debate as to the pros and cons of NCLB and the effect it has had on the classroom experience for students and teachers alike. One concern is that even though the Act applies to all students and all levels in K–12 education, NCLB poses the greatest challenge to English language learners, that is, learners who are beginning to learn English as a new language or have already gained some proficiency in English. State tests reveal that the academic performance for English language learners is not at the same level of students who speak English and that the language demands of tests required by NCLB have a negative impact on the test results of students who are learning English. At the same time, the overall performance of English language learners can be improved by focusing on developing their reading comprehension skills (Abedi, 2004).

Common Core State Standards

In 2009, the National Governor’s Association (NGA) brought a group of educators together from across the country to work on developing a set of curriculum standards for grades K–12 in the areas of mathematics and literacy (language arts). The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) were released in 2010 and are supported by the federal government and are copyrighted by the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) in addition to the NGA. States are not mandated to comply with the standards, but were offered education grants by the federal government as an incentive to adopt them.

The goal of the standards is “level the playing field” of learning and to prepare students for college and/or a career, As of 2013, they have been adopted by forty-five states, the District of Columbia, and four US territories (Houghton, 2013), and each state is responsible for creating and executing specific curricula based on the standards (National Council for History Education, 2013).

The standards for English language arts and literacy have specific criteria for each grade that pertains to anchor standards for college and career readiness. Each criterion is keyed to one of the following categories:

• "Key Ideas and Details

• "Craft and Structure

• "Integration of Knowledge and Ideas

• "Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity

Critics of the Common Core Standards cite the difficulty in “standardizing” curriculum for every student, especially those whose native language is not English and for learning disabled students. Others voice their concern that since the CCSS do not take socio-economic factors, language barriers, and learning disabilities into consideration, that many students are being set up for failure (Houghton, 2013). Many doubt the value of the K–3 standards since they were not developed using early childhood research nor were they written by anyone with experience in early childhood education (Miller & Carlsson-Paige, 2013).

Other Approaches

Cooperative Learning

There are other approaches for teaching English language arts beyond aspiring literacy standards and adhering to the mandates of NCLB, NGA, or the US Department of Education. One broad view is that educating students in the primary, middle, and high school years is a continuum, and teachers and students should be afforded cooperative learning opportunities. Cooperative learning is a teaching strategy by which students of different levels of ability are placed into small teams and a variety of learning activities are used to improve their understanding of a subject. The goal of cooperative learning is to create an atmosphere of achievement where teams work through an assignment until all group members successfully understand the lesson. In order for cooperative learning methods to be successful, Coke (2005) suggests that teachers should serve as role models and that schools should encourage teachers across the different grade levels to meet in order to exchange information, share experiences, and perform joint work. In so doing, gaps and redundancies in programs can be reduced, the developmental needs of students will be better met as they make the transition from primary school to high school, and the autonomy and professionalism of teachers will be enhanced (Coke, 2005).

The Future of English Language Arts

As we move further into the twenty-first century and toward a society that is more technologically sophisticated, there continues to be much debate regarding the direction that teaching English language arts should take. However, there is a consensus that speaking and listening skills are fundamental life skills that will continue to be a subject of study. Moreover, written and oral stories are keys to learning English and "it is also vital that the power of story-telling and narrative is retained at the core of the curriculum" (White, 2005, p.12). Finally, White notes that the curriculum should continue to include our literary heritage since that will provide students with an understanding of who we are and where we came from. At the same time there is a corollary need to ensure that the literature that is chosen satisfies the requirements of an increasingly culturally diverse society. While our society is becoming more diverse, English is becoming a global language and students will need to be capable of precision and clarity in spoken communication (White, 2005).

Ultimately, White believes that teaching English language arts requires continued creativity and imagination on the part of educators. One way to accomplish this is to employ new technologies that provide students with opportunities for creative engagement with spoken language. Schools will need to reconsider the curriculum and determine which literary texts should remain while deciding those that should be replaced by more current and culturally diverse work. In the end, teaching English and literature rests on some basic principles such as competence, creativity, critical skills, and cultural understanding. White sums it up by stating "to be creative it is also necessary to be competent; critical understanding about how language can transform or subvert meaning is necessary to an appreciation of culture; cultural understanding depends on an appreciation of the best achievements of our language and literature, and an understanding of what we write and say is part of the changing culture of a living society" (White, 2005, p. 13).

Applications

Responsive Teaching

By the time students begin their primary school education, the NCTE believes that a child's literacy growth has already begun and that the goal of English language arts education at this level is to make "productive use of the emerging literary abilities that children bring to school" (NCTE, 1996, par. 1). One method for achieving this is responsive teaching. While the term has a number of meanings, responsive teaching includes the way in which educators honor cultures, respond to family needs, and assist with children's language development. This method embraces ethnicity and culture, learning and development, as well as the use of language to assist students in becoming effective, independent learners (Wold, 2005).

In practice, responsive teaching creates an environment in which students are curious and respectful of each other's thoughts and ideas and lends itself to creating a culture that values thinking and learning. This ultimately leads to responsive behaviors and a nurturing learning environment where students are allowed to develop as readers, writers, and thinkers. Responsive teaching at this level can also assist students with meeting literacy standards. This teaching method promotes opportunities for students to engage in cooperative learning by employing strategic scaffolding techniques. Essentially, this means putting students into small groups where they can talk with each other about stories, texts, and pictures. Responsive teaching "involves carefully listening to children supporting their learning talk and mediating their ideas and questions in consistent daily language learning contexts" (Wold, 2005, p. 30).

Responsive learning can also serve as a foundation as children enter middle school where more emphasis needs to be placed on discussion in the English language arts classroom. The purpose of discussion is to create a classroom dialogue about a particular text. While discussion is the most common activity at the high school level, Adler (2003/2004) argues that there is insufficient time spent on encouraging classroom dialogue in middle schools and that allowing whole class discussion can enhance a students' acquisition of reading and analysis skills. One reason that students do not actively engage in dialogue is that they lack experience with reading literary texts and have not developed an ability to "use the language of literary interpretation independently in the classroom" (Adler, 2003/2004, p. 314).

According to Adler, one way to overcome this hurdle is for schools to rely on instructional facilitators who can assist middle and high school teachers with encouraging students to engage in dialogue. Such facilitators are usually university-level teachers who form partnerships with local schools with the goal of assisting teachers in reorganizing classrooms and encouraging more student questions and dialogue. This process is also known as dialogic facilitation and in many ways is a form of cooperative learning since it is "a joint activity, working toward a shared goal in a particular setting over time" (Adler, 2003/2004, p. 315). Moreover, this process can be beneficial to both teachers and students. As teachers become better equipped at encouraging dialogue in the classroom, they also can take a more active role in running classes and making decisions about the curriculum. The benefit for students is that valuing their contributions in the classroom helps them to "achieve understandings beyond the life of the discussion" (Adler, 2003/2004, p. 321).

Constructivism

As they find their voices and have a platform on which to express these ideas in both written and verbal ways, students can eventually take responsibility for their own learning of literary texts, and this leads to another approach in English language arts known as constructivist learning. Most students respond well to constructivist learning and enjoy the environment of a student-centered classroom, especially at the high-school level. When teachers connect the real world outside the classroom with the world inside the classroom (the literary text) students are given ideal opportunities to consider literature in relation to their own lives (Boscolo, 2003). In addition, "reading literary texts provides the topics for students to write compositions, thus demonstrating what they have learned, whereas writing on literature is viewed by many teachers as a stylistic exercise necessary for students to learn to elaborate their ideas critically and express them appropriately" (Boscolo, 2003, p. 197). Thus both parts of the literary lesson are merged: students ruminate on the literary text under consideration, then process these thoughts and put them into words, expressing their critical thinking about the literature (Boscolo, 2003).

Classic Texts

While reading and writing about literary texts can enable students to develop and express critical ideas, the question remains as to which literary texts should be included in the curriculum. Currently, many teachers continue to assign the classics: novels by authors such as Jane Austen, Charles Dickens, and Mark Twain that are considered timeless and have been traditionally used in. However, many students are not interested in these texts and this is due, in part, to the fact that students entering high school do not have strong literary backgrounds and have not been exposed to a variety of reading materials. Santoli contends that getting students to read is a common problem that can be resolved if teachers use young adult literature that can serve to encourage students to participate in satisfying literary experiences as well as to better prepare them to appreciate and understand classic literature. However, many teachers do not consider young adult novels worthy of attention, and teacher guides do not allow for the use of these novels (Santoli, 2004).

Young Adult Literature

At the same time, some studies have shown most teenagers are not ready for classic literature, which tends not to address typical adolescent concerns. Young adult (YA) literature deals with such eternal questions as "Who Am I?" and "Where Do I Fit In?" Moreover, YA literature deals with contemporary issues that students are facing such as social and political concerns about racial and ethnic discrimination, AIDS, teen pregnancy, divorce, or problems resulting from family conflicts. While young adult literature may not have the status in English language arts that the classics do, the former does include "a variety of situational archetypes such as the test/trial as a rite of passage, the journey or quest of the hero, birth/rebirth and the search for self" (Santoli, 2004, p. 68-69). In the end, the purpose of studying literature is to engage students in reading, discussing, and analyzing texts that are provided in the classroom, and this can be achieved if the curriculum is balanced between the classics and good contemporary young adult literature (Santoli, 2004).

Ultimately, while there are many methods for teaching English language arts that vary from state to state and even school to school, the goal of teaching English and literature is to enable students to think critically and to communicate effectively.

Viewpoints

Multicultural Literature

Today, English teachers of all levels have recently broadened the curricula to include literature that is inclusive rather than exclusive. By doing so, teachers have expanded their attitudes and the manner in which they, along with their students, investigate racial and cultural issues. In so doing students are provided with greater opportunities to consider these significant issues in the classroom. "There is an urgent need for English teachers to increase their sensitivity to cultural differences and develop teaching skills to conduct classroom discussions that promote cross-cultural understanding and culturally varied ways of living and knowing" (Dong, 2005 p. 370). Responding to multicultural literature may be an intimidating experience for students whose prior literary experience has been limited to the traditional canon; thus, teachers assist students in forming a new set of cultural responses when reading literature written by or about minorities.

According to Dong (2005), teachers who expose students to multicultural literature allow for a much-needed role reversal. Often, multicultural students, whose diverse native languages and cultures marginalize them to the periphery of classrooms, become insiders when discussing multicultural literature. That is, these students may actually know, or at least recognize, more about the literature than the teacher. This role reversal can be extraordinary for all the students, in that sharing experiences becomes more than an abstract idea. When this occurs, students and teachers benefit from studying multicultural literature. Teaching multicultural literature is extremely important, especially in elementary and middle schools when students are forming opinions of education itself. If teachers can encourage minority students to express themselves and share their experiences when they are young, these students will find and utilize their voices. Thus their relationship to English class in general and literature specifically will be solidified over the years, assuming each subsequent English teacher allows them to voice their experiences and respond freely to multicultural literature (Dong, 2005).

Literature & Technology

In addition to moving toward cultural diversity in English language arts, educators now promote that the curriculum should also prepare students and teachers for a more technologically sophisticated world. As society has become more technologically sophisticated through the evolution of the Internet and the digitalization of texts, the effect on students' reading and writing abilities and the way in which they engage with literature has also evolved. As McNabb (2005) suggests, digital texts force readers to make choices and there needs to be an understanding of how hyperlink affects a reader's purpose and comprehension. This poses a number of critical questions:

• "If hypertext brings forth each student's individual reading path and processes, then what are the characteristics of appropriate methods of measurement?

• "Do traditional reading and writing strategies applicable to print-based materials transfer to digital text?

• "As information networks provide students with access to vast amounts of uncensored text, what are the best methods for fostering students' ability to critically evaluate digital information?

• "What is the fundamental nature of reading processes associated with hypertext?

• "How do these compare with processes readers use when reading print?

• "What comprehension abilities are prerequisite to derive meaning from hypertext?" (McNabb, 2005, p. 117).

These questions are critical because the advances of the Internet brought about by wireless remote access and portable computers is shifting access rates to information and literary content and this will affect the way in which students learn. Teachers will need to be provided with professional development opportunities to adequately integrate technology into their approaches to teaching (McNabb, 2005).

Conclusion

While some of the models for teaching like cooperative learning, constructivist learning and responsive learning apply to many subjects, these are effective models for teaching English and Literature. At the same time, English language arts education needs to remain connected to contemporary society and students need to see how studying literature relates to the world in which they live. In the final analysis, in order for students to be well equipped to compete in a more technologically sophisticated society, they must be able to communicate effectively and this can be accomplished, in part, if they achieve the literacy standards set forth by the Common Core. At the same time it remains unknown as to how technological advances will affect those standards and what constitutes literacy in a technologically oriented society.

Terms & Concepts

Constructivist Learning: A philosophy of learning that emphasizes reflection on experiences. Learners construct their own understanding of the world.

Cooperative Learning: A teaching strategy where students of different levels of ability are placed into small teams and a variety of learning activities are used to improve their understanding of a subject.

Cultural Diversity: “Differences in race, ethnicity, language, nationality, or religion among various groups within a community, organization, or nation” (smhp.psych.ucla.edu).

English Language Arts: The teaching of English and literature including composition, reading and creative writing, with literacy achievement as the goal.

International Reading Association (IRA): National association of educators dedicated to teaching reading comprehension. Established Literacy Standards in conjunction with the NCTE in 1996.

Literacy: The ability to read and write and use language, writing and listening to achieve an adequate level of communication.

Multicultural Literature: Literature that is inclusive rather than exclusive and is drawn from a broad array of racial and ethnic backgrounds.

National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE): National association of educators dedicated to the teaching of English. Established Standards of Literacy for English Language Arts in conjunction with the IRA in 1996.

Reading Comprehension: The level of understanding of a passage or text.

Responsive Teaching: A teaching method that embraces ethnicity and culture, learning and development, as well as the use of language to assist students in becoming effective, independent learners.

Bibliography

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Adler, M., Rougle, E., Kaiser, E. & Caughlan, S. (2003). Closing the gap between concept and practice: Toward more dialogic discussion in the language arts classroom. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 47 , 312-322. Retrieved April 24, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=11867878&site=ehost-live

Boscolo, P. & Carotti, L. (2003). Does writing contribute to improving high school students' approach to literature? Educational Studies in Language and Literature, 3 , 197-224. Retrieved March 17, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Resource Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=11585465&site=ehost-live

Chase, L., Gonzaga, K., Manwaring, B., Pyne, C., Rawlins, K., & Waddell, S. (2012). Multimodal responses to literature in years 5–8: The other worlds project. Literacy Learning: The Middle Years, 20, 52–64. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=82217650

Coke, P. K. (2005). Practicing what we preach: An argument for cooperative learning opportunities for elementary and secondary educators. Education, 126 , 392-398. Retrieved April 23, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=19526526&site=ehost-live

Dong, Y. R. (2005). Bridging the cultural gap by teaching multicultural literature. The Educational Forum, 69 , 367-382. Retrieved March 7, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=17685738&site=ehost-live

Hobbs, R. (2004). Analyzing advertising in the English language arts classroom: A quasi-experimental study. Simile, 4 . Retrieved April 24, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=14077474&site=ehost-live

Houghton, Kristen. (2013, December 19). Common core aka NCLB: Why neither can work. Retrieved December 21, 2013, from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/kristen-houghton/common-core-aka-nclb%5Fb%5F4450463.html

Ivey, G., & Johnston, P. H. (2013). Engagement with young adult literature: Outcomes and processes. Reading Research Quarterly, 48, 255–275. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88824332

McNabb, M. L. (2005). Raising the bar on technology research in English language arts. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 38 , 113-119. Retrieved April 24, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=18566903&site=ehost-live

Miller, Edward, & Carlsson-Paige, Nancy. (2013, January 29). A tough critique of Common Core on early childhood education. Retrieved December 21, 2013, from http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2013/01/29/a-tough-critique-of-common-core-on-early-childhood-education/

National Council for History Education. (2013). FAQs: Common Core State Standards and history education. Retrieved December 21, 2013, from http://www.nche.net/commoncore

National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE). (1996). Standards for the English language arts. Newark, DE: International Reading Association; Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Retrieved April 24, 2007, from http://www.ncte.org/about/over/standards/110846.htm

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White, J. (2005, December). Teaching English tomorrow. Literacy Today, , 12-13. Retrieved April 23, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=19230209&site=ehost-live

Wold, L. (2005). Teaching first grade literacy responsively with language arts standards in mind. Illinois Reading Council Journal, 33 , 22-31. Retrieved April 24, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=16647572&site=ehost-live

Yingli, W. (2013). A Literature review on content ESL instruction. Journal of Language Teaching & Research, 4, 642–647. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90356445

Suggested Reading

Benko, S. L. (2012). Scaffolding: An ongoing process to support adolescent writing development. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 56, 291–300. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=83711914

McConachie, S., Hall, M., Resnick, L., Ravi, A., Bill, V., Bintz, J. & Taylor, J. A. (2006). Task, text, and talk. Educational Leadership, 64 , 8-14. Retrieved April 23, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=22711487&site=ehost-live

Scheibe, C. L. (2004). A deeper sense of literacy: Curriculum-driven approaches to media literacy in the K-12 classroom. American Behavioral Scientist, 48 , 60-68. Retrieved April 24, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=14274707&site=ehost-live

Shi, Z. (2013). Home literacy environment and English language learners' literacy development: What can we learn from the literature?. Canadian Children, 38, 29–38. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88479430

Whitcomb, J. A. (2004). Dilemmas of design and predicaments of practice: Adapting the 'fostering a community of learners' model in secondary school English language arts. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 36 , 183-206. Retrieved April 24, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12493247&site=ehost-live