Writing Across the Curriculum

Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) is an educational movement that began in the 1970s and has continued to be a strong movement in schools and districts today. WAC has been implemented across all levels of education and is based on the premise that writing is not only a necessary skill but also can be used as a significant tool for learning across all subject areas. WAC can be divided into two approaches — Writing in the Disciplines (WID) and Writing to Learn (WTL). It has also generated other separate learning movements, including Electronic Communication Across Curriculum (ECAC) and Language & Learning Across the Curriculum (LALAC).

Keywords: Electronic Communication Across Curriculum (ECAC); Language and Learning Across the Curriculum (LALAC); Learning Communities; Service Learning; Writing Across Curriculum (WAC); Writing Centers; Writing in the Disciplines (WID); Writing to Learn (WTL)

Overview

One of the biggest misconceptions about many “soft” skills is that students can learn them in an English course and simply have them in their bank of knowledge. However, all of these skills are learned through practice over time. Writing across the Curriculum (WAC) is a longstanding educational movement that seeks to improve students' critical thinking, analytical, and writing skills by integrating writing instruction throughout all disciplines and courses, and throughout a student's entire academic career (Dana, Hancock & Phillips, 2011). Writing Across the Curriculum began in colleges and universities across the country in the 1970s as a way to improve the writing of undergraduate students. Soon afterward, the movement filtered down into K-12 schools, and continues in many districts and schools nationwide as one of the most enduring movements in educational reform.

The WAC movement, like many school reform movements, was born from a response to what many perceived as crisis for America — that American students were dangerously unprepared for the work force due to their poor writing skills. Railsback (2004) notes that this trend continues — in fact, those WAC programs that are seen as most successful today were prompted by the current standards movement in American education.

The WAC movement found its roots in early American education. Previously, writing skills were not necessarily center in the discussion pertaining to good educational practices. Writing was often not taught until later in school because it was perceived that students needed to master reading prior to writing. However, in 1874, Harvard University implemented a written entrance exam for admission. Subsequently, the school also put into practice a writing course for each incoming freshman class in response to the poor writing skills observed in upperclassmen. This quickly set off a movement to improve writing instruction in all schools (National Writing Project & Nagin, 2003).

From that time on, writing became a central concern for education in America. The movement gained even more momentum in 1975, when Newsweek magazine released the article, "Why Johnny Can't Write," declaring a sweeping crisis across the nation due to students' poor writing skills. The successive increase in remediation of writing instruction at not only the university level but also elementary and secondary education gave birth to the WAC movement that continues today, albeit in various forms (National Writing Project & Nagin, 2003).

Writing Across the Curriculum Today

In preparation for new testing in the fall of 2014, district leaders increased writing and shifted it across the curriculum as means of teaching to the Common Core standards. Under Common Core, district literacy must supplement narrative and opinion writing with information-based writing and evidence-based argumentative writing not just in English Language Arts but in civics, science, and even math education (Daddona, 2013). The intent of these programs includes escalating the frequency of writing in schools, incorporating writing instruction across various subject and content areas, and promoting writing and writing instruction as an educational tool (Railsback, 2004). Railsback (2004) cautions that WAC is not simply an instructional method for writing; rather it includes writing across various subjects in order to help students learn, engage, and reflect upon their studies.

Writing across the Curriculum (WAC) is a distinct movement defined chiefly by its teaching method. It moves away from teaching students solely through the lecture and towards a paradigm of increasing student engagement of the topic through writing, across all subjects. Supporters of WAC argue that the various writing programs and practices implemented in schools help students in various ways such as increasing communication and problem solving skills as well as helping students learn the material at hand (McLeod & Miraglia, 2001).

The WAC movement introduced new practices into American schools, and the movement has evolved and changed drastically since its primary introduction in the 1970s. However, there are also many schools and districts in which WAC was never truly implemented, as the challenges of training and results were too large to overcome (Barr & Healy, 1988). In those districts and schools that have strong WAC programs, instructional practices and professional development for teachers has revolved around the WAC for years (Railsback, 2004).

• The Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) movement initiated myriad practices in American schools, including:
• Writing centers specifically set up to help students improve their writing skills across content areas,
• Incorporating writing into service learning,
• Setting up learning communities,
• Collaboration with other schools and between K-12 and higher education, and
• The introduction of writing intensive courses.

Furthermore, at the classroom level, educators are using the WAC practices, which are often divided into two categories — Writing in the Disciplines (WID) and Writing to Learn (WTL).

With the changes in technology and in student demographics, WAC has continued to be seen as an important movement for providing students with the best education. The movement has evolved as technology has introduced new aspects of writing that schools and educators can implement into schools and individual classrooms. With the demographics of American students having changed dramatically after entering the twenty-first century, WAC practices continue to be seen as important tools for educators to implement across various subjects.

The call for increased writing instruction in America's schools is still prevalent today, and is founded upon an amalgamation of factors. In 2003, the National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) released a report in which they found that only forty-nine percent of high school seniors were receiving written assignments of three pages or more. Thirty-nine percent "never" or "hardly ever" received these types of assignments. Only a quarter of these high school seniors were found to perform at or above proficiency level in writing. Policymakers worried that high schools were not adequately preparing students for life beyond high school, and called for increased writing in all subjects (NCES, 2003).

Railsback (2004) points out that the focus on writing ability has increased significantly, across all topics, in many states. New standardized state tests as well as tests for high school graduation or college admission include writing standards in various content areas. For example, since 2005, both the SAT and ACT require a writing section, and many state standardized exams have also implemented a writing section in various subject areas. Today's students must demonstrate competency in writing across a broad variety of disciplines.

The focus on writing instruction in K-12 is also fueled by the number of college students who are finding themselves without the skills to meet the writing standards in their colleges and universities. Many students, once they arrive at college, are placed into pre-college writing courses. These students are more often than not students of color, low-income, and non-native English speakers. Because the writing courses that they are placed into are considered remedial, they often do not count towards graduation requirements, and may require additional fees (Railsback, 2004).

A final reason that WAC has endured in the American educational landscape may be the new and changing demands of the work force. As Americans begin populating a work force with changing demands, the skill level of one's writing capabilities have become important across all disciplines (Railsback, 2004).

Applications

Language & Learning Across the Curriculum (LALAC) & Electronic Communication Across Curriculum (ECAC)

Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) has been flanked by two approaches to writing, both fueled by the idea that writing can help students learn more fully: Language and Learning Across the Curriculum (LALAC) and Electronic Communication across Curriculum (ECAC). LALAC places a primary focus on the importance of all areas of language, including writing, reading, speaking, and listening. Regardless of the topic or subject, LALAC employs all of these areas in order to help students learn. Electronic Communication Across Curriculum (ECAC) shows how educators are thinking about how new technologies have changed the way individuals write, and focuses on implementing these technological skills into the curriculum. For example, students may participate in a course where, instead of writing a term paper, they create a website showing mastery of content for that particular course (Railsback, 2004).

School-wide Approaches

The Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) movement has seen School-wide implementation as well as implementation at just the classroom level. These approaches include Writing Centers, School-University Partnerships, Service Learning projects, Peer tutoring, Learning Communities, and Writing Intensive (WI) courses.

In a writing center, which may be located in a school's library, a classroom, or during certain hours of the day, instructors (usually one on one) will offer writing tutoring to students across various subject areas. Writing centers are still rare at the K-12 level, but appear on many college campuses. Other permutations of a writing center may include writing workshops for students, or specific required classes that are focused on writing. Technology has also made possible online tutoring options — either through electronic mail or internet forums that provide feedback to students on their writing (Railsback, 2004).

A school-university partnership employs collaborative efforts with local colleges and universities to help improve student writing in high school. These partnerships may prove beneficial for many reasons — schools can share resources, professional development opportunities, and most of all, high schools will know what sort of skills students need to develop in order to be successful in college (Railsback, 2004).

Recent approaches have also focused on Service Learning as a tool for improving writing. Projects are designed to allow students to improve their writing skills through inquiry and reflection. Railsback (2004) denotes this approach of WAC "writing for social action" (pp. 10).

Schools or districts may also use and implement learning communities or writing intensive (WI) courses. In learning communities, groups of students will enroll in the same course or same group of courses. Writing assignments will be given to address the subject area being learned, as well as other topics in the same community. These learning communities may also include a writing intensive (WI) course, in which students write and receive consistent feedback in a small, low student-teacher ratio classroom (McLeod & Miraglia, 2001).

Classroom-level Approaches

While WAC practices may not be formally implemented into a school district or entire school, many K-12 teachers implement practices. These practices often follow either or both of two approaches: Writing in the Disciplines (WID) and Writing to Learn (WTL).

Writing in the Disciplines (WID)

Writing in the Disciplines (WID) is grounded in the proposal that students increase their skills in a certain academic discipline, and learn more fully when the specific writing practices of that discipline are implemented. For example, in a science class, teachers may have students write lab reports or write an article for a science journal while an English class will analyze a play or short story. These writing assignments may vary from discipline to discipline, and will focus on that particular discipline's use of language and style to convey information, to question, and to come to a conclusion. In short, WID teaches students the language of a specific academic pursuit, and that discipline's style of writing.

Writing to Learn (WTL)

Writing to Learn (WTL) focuses on using the act of writing to help students make new connections or obtain new knowledge. Teachers may employ tactics such as journals or learning logs, entrance and exit slips, letter writing, or blogs to help students master material through writing. These approaches also assist the teacher in gaining knowledge of what a student does understand versus the topics in which they are struggling. Furthermore, since students are writing regularly, and receiving feedback, they maintain and improve their writing and communication skills.

Implementing Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC)

When implementing WAC a district, school, or teacher must take into account a variety of issues, including writing instruction, implementing writing tasks into the course work, and sustainability. While there is little quantitative research regarding the success of WAC programs, there are precedents for success that remain consistent from program evaluations (Farrell-Childers, Gere, & Young, 1994).

The skill of writing can be developed and honed through a variety of practices, based on current research. Writing improves foremost when increased time is spent on the skill. Students who have the opportunity to write more often across a school day, week or year will improve their writing, especially when the assignments are focused and help students make connections to the world around them (Egawa, 1998). The National Commission on Writing (NCW, 2003) recommends that the amount of time spent writing in most schools should be doubled. There are many ways to increase the amount of time students spend writing, and one of them is to assign written projects that connect students to the world around them. Yore, Hand, & Prain (1999) recommend that students write as much as possible not only for a grade but also have meaningful assignments that go outside the boundaries of the classroom. In this way, students not only write more but also learn to write effectively for a variety of contexts.

Different students learn to write in different ways. Similarly, students write differently based on the subject and situation. Achieving mastery at writing in English does not necessarily signal mastery in Science. Sustainable and solid WAC programs will take into account these differences in writing style and mastery of various topics, and encourage students to exercise a variety of writing skills throughout the breadth of subjects (Railsback, 2004). The NCW (2003) strongly suggests that writing across a variety of subjects will also assist in helping to increase the time students spend writing, and teach them to write more successfully across an array of topics.

Many policymakers contend that professional development is crucial in successful implementation of WAC. The NWC (2003) suggests that there must be common understanding between teachers on excellent writing practices. Teachers must have access to professional development focused on student writing so they may help students improve writing skills. Railsback (2004) notes that many researchers recommend that professional development specifically geared towards WAC should be implemented prior to beginning a program, and should continue for at least two years into implementation of WAC in order to achieve maximum results.

Finally, massive advances in technology have changed the way people write, and how teachers can assess student writing. Writing assignments may be changed to incorporate different technology such as web sites, blogs, or e-mail and forums to write and assess writing. Also, technology can help teachers to help students in various aspects of the writing process — whether it is checking for mistakes in grammar or spelling, and sharing and editing of work by peers or other tutors.

Issues

The Writing Across the Curriculum Movement that began in the 1970s has evolved into the twenty-first century. It is indeed one of the most long-lived movements in educational policy, outlasting much change in American education. However, one of the reasons for this staying power may be that writing continues to be a skill that many schools fail to teach effectively enough for students to enter and succeed in college. Writing is seen as a crucial skill for success in higher education and in many professions, especially as the American job landscape changes and shifts to reflect the need for increased written communication.

Lack of Valuable Research

While there is evidence that WAC is an effective way to teach and improve the writing skills, a large body of quantitative research regarding its efficacy does not currently exist. Railsback (2004) points out sizable studies that are valid are difficult to carry out due to the variety of programs that fall under the umbrella of WAC. While there are studies that have examined WAC, such as a 1992 study of ten middle schools in Texas (van Allen, 1992, as cited in Railsback, 2004), there needs to be continued quantitative research. However, the research that is available continues to have positive outlooks for WAC. For example, the Texas study compared schools with WAC programs to schools without them. Van Allen (1992) found that over the course of a five-year period, writing scores of students were higher in schools that had implemented WAC versus those schools that did not. Furthermore, students were found to have dramatically different feelings towards writing after the program was implemented.

Assessment

As programs in WAC continue to evolve and be implemented into schools and districts, program evaluation also needs attention. A system of assessment is as important as the preparation for and implementation of a program. Assessment should happen on many different levels; in the classroom as well as school-wide. In the classroom, different teachers may want to collaborate with other teachers in arriving at shared expectations about what constitutes high-quality writing. This will also help educators pinpoint which students are writing well in which subject areas, and assist those who are having problems writing in other areas. This collaborative effort on assessment can help teachers become more attuned to effective writing practices across a broad spectrum of topic areas, and in turn help students become more prepared for higher education and the workforce.

An evaluation of an entire WAC program should also be implemented in order to assess program outcomes and make modifications as necessary. Railsback (2004) explains that while most publications regarding assessment of WAC are geared towards college programs, these resources can certainly be useful in evaluating K-12 programs. The National Commission on Writing (2003) suggests that excellent assessment begins with alignment of standards in writing. Furthermore, while multiple-choice exams are easily scored, the NCW recommends that American schools take the time to have students produce and be scored on writing samples as part of the assessment of a WAC program.

The needs of students in America are changing rapidly. More students are entering higher education than ever before. They are from diverse backgrounds; the work they are preparing for in college is more skill-oriented, and writing is one of these crucial skills. All of these changes pose challenges for education policy. Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) can address these challenges in many ways at different levels. At the classroom level an increase in time spent on writing as well as careful selection of what students write about can reach a wide range of students and their interests. Writing should help students feel that their experiences and diversity are valued and careful curriculum planning around writing can help accomplish this goal, and in turn be beneficial to student achievement (Railsback, 2004).

The NCW (2003) highlights the example of the growing number of English Language Learners, and how to help them become proficient speakers, readers, and writers of English. The organization suggests that partnerships with universities would help these students build excellent writing skills as they develop proficiency in a new language. Many policymakers believe that WAC can be an effective tool in teaching ESL students the skills they need to be successful in the future.

The ability to communicate in writing has always been a valuable skill in the American educational landscape. The necessity of being able to produce high-quality writing has only increased. Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) is an enduring movement in education policy that mirrors this continued need for aptitude in writing. While WAC has continued to change and adapt for over forty years, schools and districts will continue to face challenges in improving the writing of its students across a broad range of subject areas. Today, many students struggle to master the writing skills that will prepare them for the future. If WAC is to be an effective solution to this issue, schools and districts must work to implement and assess the programs in a sustainable manner. This effort will take the collaboration and endorsement of many different groups of people, but may also have the capacity to yield effective results. Discussion of writing across the curriculum reminds educators that all teaching must meet students where they are and bring them to where we want them to be (Hanstedt, 2012).

Terms & Concepts

Electronic Communication Across Curriculum (ECAC): ECAC incorporates new technologies into writing instruction. Examples include websites, blogs, and online forums.

Language and Learning Across the Curriculum (LALAC): LALAC incorporates writing, reading, speaking, and listening to all subject areas to help students learn.

Learning Communities: Learning Communities involve groups of students who enroll in the same course or group of courses. These communities will incorporate WAC by assigning writing across a broad range of subjects.

Service Learning: Service Learning projects are designed to incorporate writing into the community project, which helps students improve their writing skills through action, inquiry, and reflection.

Writing Across Curriculum (WAC): WAC is a movement to incorporate more writing instruction in schools, not only to help students become more proficient writers, but more proficient learners of the material across a broad range of subjects.

Writing Centers: Writing centers are set up to provide instruction and feedback to students on a one-on-one basis.

Writing in the Disciplines (WID): WID is a WAC approach that uses varying writing assignments depending on the academic discipline to help students learn and improve their writing skills.

Writing to Learn (WTL): WTL focuses on using writing to help students learn the course material, including journals and entrance or exit slips.

Bibliography

Barr, M.A., & Healy, M.K. (1988) School and university articulation: Different contexts for writing across the curriculum. In S.H. McLeod (Ed.), Strengthening programs for writing across the curriculum (pp. 43-53). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Daddona, P. (2013). Writing across the K12 curriculum. District Administration, 49, 33-37. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88841208&site=ehost-live

Dana, H., Hancock, C., & Phillips, J. (2011). A research proposal to evaluate the merits of writing across the curriculum. American Journal of Business Education, 4, 15-20. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=60836913&site=ehost-live

Egawa, K. (1998). Writing in the middle grades. Language Arts, 3.

Farrell-Childers, P., Gere, A.R. & Young, A. (Eds). (1994). Programs and practices: Writing across the secondary school curriculum. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.

Guerra, J. C. (2014). Enacting institutional change: The work of literacy insurgents in the academy and beyond. JAC: A Journal Of Rhetoric, Culture & Politics, 34(1/2), 71–95. Retrieved November 12, 2014 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=97515812

Hanstedt, P. (2012). Three reasons to make writing across the curriculum part of the conversation. Liberal Education, 98, 48-51. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=85223523&site=ehost-live

Lewis, K. R., & Loertscher, D. V. (2014). The possible is now.Teacher Librarian, 41, 48–52. Retrieved November 12, 2014 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=94736183

McLeod, S. & Miraglia, E. (2001), Writing across the curriculum in a time of change. In McLeod, S., Miraglia, E. (Eds), WAC for the New Millennium: Strategies for Continuing Writing-across-the-Curriculum Programs, 1-27. Urbana, IL: NCTE.

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2003). The nation's report card: Writing highlights 2002. Jessup, MD: United States Department of Education. Retrieved June 26, 2009, from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2002/2003531.pdf.

National Commission on Writing in America's Schools and Colleges. (2003, April). The neglected "R": The need for a writing revolution. New York, NY: College Entrance Examination Board. Retrieved June 26, 2009, from http://www.writingcommission.org/prod%5fdownloads/writingcom/ neglectedr.pdf.

National Writing Project & Nagin, C. (2003). Because writing matters: Improving student writing in our schools. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Railsback, J. (2004). Writing to learn, learning to write: Revisiting writing across the curriculum in Northwest secondary schools. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved June 26, 2009, from http://www.nwrel.org/request/2004dec/textonly.html.

van Allen, L. (1991). The effect of writing across the curriculum programs on student writing improvement: A study of selected middle schools in Texas" (Doctoral dissertation, Univ. of Texas at Austin, 1991). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52(07), 2398.

Yore, L.D., Hand, B., & Prain, V. (1999). Writing-to-learn science: Breakthroughs, barriers, and promises. Paper presented at the International Conference of the Association for Educating Teachers in Science, Austin, TX. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED441688).

Suggested Reading

Belcher, D. (1989). How professors initiate nonnative speakers into their disciplinary discourse communities. Texas papers in foreign language education, 207.

Blalock, G., & Nagelhout, E. (1997). Learning through language: A call for action in all disciplines. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, Language and Learning Across the Curriculum Committee.

Griffin, C.W. (ed.) (1982). Teaching writing in all disciplines. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Purves, A. (ed.) (1988). Writing across languages and cultures: Issues in contrastive rhetoric. Newbury Park: CA: Sage.

Russell, D.R. (1991). Writing in the academic disciplines, 1870-1990: A curricular history. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.

Whitehead, D., & Murphy, F. (2014). Mind your language. Journal Of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 57, 492–502. Retrieved November 12, 2014 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=94728236