Analysis: Digest of Operation Overlord
Operation Overlord was a crucial military strategy devised during World War II by the United States and Great Britain, aimed at invading German-occupied Europe via the English Channel. This operation became a focal point of Allied efforts to defeat Nazi Germany, particularly after the Soviet Union urged the opening of a second front to alleviate pressure on its forces. The planning for Overlord began in earnest in 1943, culminating in a detailed digest prepared by British and American military officers. This comprehensive plan outlined the deployment of troops, logistical considerations, and strategic objectives, emphasizing the importance of surprise and concentrated force at key attack points.
The operation was launched on June 6, 1944, known as D-Day, and involved complex planning to ensure success against German defenses. The choice of landing sites along the French coast was meticulously debated, with planners recommending specific locations based on factors such as accessibility, enemy strength, and potential for follow-up operations. Overlord highlighted not only the immediate tactical goals but also the broader strategy of sustaining momentum in the European theater. The collaborative effort between American and British forces marked a significant moment in military history, showcasing the complexities of Allied cooperation and the high stakes of wartime decision-making.
Analysis: Digest of Operation Overlord
Date: July 30, 1943
Authors: Frederick E. Morgan, et al.
Genre: military document
Summary Overview
Operation Overlord was the plan developed during World War II by the United States and Great Britain to cross the British Channel, invade the European continent, and defeat Germany. Although the Allies agreed early that defeating Germany was their top priority, a direct thrust could be made only after Germany's military capability was degraded. A team of British and US military officers was assigned to draft a plan in spring 1943. US president Franklin D. Roosevelt and British prime minister Winston Churchill adopted the plan in August 1943.
Defining Moment
After Germany's Adolf Hitler broke the nonaggression pact he had signed with Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and invaded Russia in June 1941, the Soviets began pressing the Allies to open a second front in Western Europe to force Hitler to divide his forces. Even before the United States entered World War II, Roosevelt and Churchill approved the establishment of the Combined Chiefs of Staff to plan a global war strategy. The United States was assigned primary responsibility for planning strategy in the Pacific, while Great Britain assumed strategic responsibility for the Mediterranean and eastern Europe. The two nations were to be jointly responsible for planning operations in Western Europe, where both Churchill and Roosevelt knew that their military forces would have to confront Hitler's armies directly.
When the United States entered the war in December 1941, pressure from Stalin began to mount. In an initial response, Brigadier General Dwight D. Eisenhower of the US Army's War Plans Division was assigned to draft a plan, Operation Roundup, which called for landing forty-eight divisions on the coast of France by spring 1943. However, the plan was never implemented. Instead, early in 1942, the Allies developed a grand strategy that called for wearing down Axis forces by encircling Axis territory, using naval blockades, aiding Allies involved in confronting the Germans and Italians in Europe, bombing strategic targets such as German cities and military sites, and assisting resistance forces in occupied countries.
However, the idea for an invasion across the English Channel remained a key component of Allied strategy; the plan was given the code name Overlord. At the Trident Conference in Washington, DC, in May 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed in principle to proceed with Overlord. The date for the invasion was set for May 1, 1944, and the planning process initiated (the operation was ultimately launched on June 6).
The concept for Overlord employed the military principle of concentration of forces that American planners favored; the British agreed in principle, but believed it important to sap the enemy's strength by attacking in other areas before and during the major invasion in northwest France. German military leaders knew the Allies would launch an invasion, but they did not know when or where. Overlord was highly contingent, therefore, on the Allies' ability to weaken Axis forces and reduce the number of combat divisions Hitler could deploy along the French coast. If Hitler were forced to keep troops along the Russian front and in the Mediterranean, he would have fewer options for reinforcing units in northwest France.
Author Biography
Initial planning for Operation Overlord was done in London by a combined British-American team of military officers. At the head of the team was Lieutenant General Frederick E. Morgan (1894–1967), a career British soldier who served as a junior officer in World War I. During World War II, as a brigadier general, he commanded a support group and then became a corps commander. In March 1943, he was appointed chief of staff to the supreme Allied commander (COSSAC), even though the supreme Allied commander had not yet been named. Morgan's staff was tasked with developing a detailed plan for a cross-channel landing. Morgan had access to Eisenhower's Roundup plan when his staff set about drafting plans for Overlord. Morgan's principal deputy was American major general Ray Barker. Barker enlisted in the US Army in 1910, was commissioned in 1913, served in World War I, and rose through the ranks to the grade of brigadier general before being assigned to Morgan's staff.
Document Analysis
In July 1943, Morgan and his staff prepared the digest of the full plan, which ran more than one hundred pages. In the brief summary, planners outline the steps required to achieve the overall objective: to land an invasion force on the European continent and establish a beachhead from which forces could launch offensive operations against Germany's army and air force. The digest discusses in some detail the advantages and disadvantages of various points along the coast of France where the Allies might land forces, recommends a specific location, and outlines plans for the various phases of the operation. Planners also point out how future operations may proceed once landing forces have been augmented by reinforcements and suggest how the supreme Allied commander might employ units under him to best advantage in mounting his offensive on the Continent. A separate section highlights conditions that might affect the success of the operation so that decision makers (in this case, Roosevelt and Churchill) would understand what would be required both before and after Overlord is launched.
Like most war plans, the one for Operation Overlord is written in the dispassionate style used by military planners to present facts, outline options, and discuss contingencies without resorting to emotional appeals. The digest uses terms familiar to military commanders (though not always to general readers). Planners are transparent in identifying key issues: conditions at the point of the invasion (including availability of suitable ports nearby), size and composition of the invasion force, problems with resupply and landing of reinforcements, and potential for disruption by the enemy. The emphasis is on logic and clear argumentation, providing decision makers a clear structure by which all aspects of the plan can be understood. Particularly noteworthy is the careful attention given to options for the lodgement area, so that when decision makers see the final recommendation they will understand the reasons planners had for selecting the Caen beaches over alternatives.
Without mentioning them specifically, planners relied heavily on time-honored principles of war in creating their document. The digest states the overall objective clearly and succinctly, emphasizes the importance of taking the offensive, concentrating the mass of forces at the point of attack, addressing the opportunities for maneuver, and taking advantage of the element of surprise. The plan also alludes to the need for unity of command, openly referring to a supreme Allied commander who would direct Overlord and be responsible for the Allies' operations in the European theater once the invasion force broke out of its beachhead and launched an offensive against German forces in France and Germany.
Glossary
amphibious assault: an attack which moves from water onto land
bridgehead: a position held or to be gained on the enemy side of an obstacle to cover the crossing of friendly troops; any position gained that can be used as a foothold for advancement; a beachhead
lodgement: a small area gained and held in enemy territory; a blockage or accumulation
panzer divisions: an armored division of the German army, mostly made up of tanks and used in rapid attacks
Bibliography and Additional Reading
Greenfield, Kent Roberts. American Strategy in World War II: A Reconsideration. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1963. Print.
Hastings, Max. Overlord: D-Day and the Battle for Normandy. New York: Simon, 1984. Print.
Jackson, W. G. F. Overlord: Normandy 1944. Newark: U of Delaware P, 1978. Print.
Sainsbury, Keith. The Turning Point: Roosevelt, Stalin, Churchill, and Chiang-Kai-Shek, 1943—The Moscow, Cairo, and Teheran Conferences. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1985. Print.
Stoler, Mark A. The Politics of the Second Front: American Military Planning and Diplomacy in Coalition Warfare, 1941–1943. Westport: Greenwood, 1977. Print.