Hadrian's Wall

Hadrian's Wall was a defensive stone and turf fortification in northern England that marked the northwestern boundary of the Roman Empire in the second century CE. Its contemporary name references the Roman emperor Hadrian, who ruled from 117 to 138. In antiquity, the wall was known as the Vallum Hadriani (Latin for Hadrian's Wall) or as the Vallum Aelii (meaning either Aelian's Wall or the Aelian Frontier, which referenced Hadrian's family name of Aelius).

It was constructed over a roughly six-year period from 122 to approximately 128 CE. It crossed a span of 73 miles (120 kilometers) from Newcastle to Bowness-on-Solway and required a massive effort to build. The true purpose behind its construction is unknown, and various theories have been proposed. It may have been used to limit immigration, to control the smuggling of goods, or to protect Roman settlements from the Picts and other indigenous peoples who lived north of the wall. Regardless of its original function, Hadrian's Wall has become an emblem of the era when Britain was under Roman control and called Britannia. It has become an important tourist attraction in contemporary England, and it is listed as both a Scheduled Ancient Monument (under British law) and a World Heritage Site under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

Brief History

After several failed attempts at conquest, the Romans again sought to conquer Britain in 43 CE. Only a generation before, the Roman emperor Augustus had decided to end further attempts at extending Roman rule after a disastrous defeat to Germanic tribes at the Battle of Teutoburg in 9 CE. However, in 41 CE, the newly installed emperor Claudius had only a tenuous grip on power. He sought to demonstrate his strength by gaining a victory over the Briton tribes. Claudius organized a force of forty thousand soldiers to combat the Britons. They faced stubborn resistance throughout southern Britain, particularly in Wales.

In 61 CE, the Romans were almost ejected during a revolt led by Queen Boudicca of the Iceni. By 84 CE, the British controlled an area stretching north to the Moray Firth in Scotland. Although they came close to controlling the entirety of Britain, the Roman legions were stretched thin due to attacks on several fronts throughout the empire. The military leadership in Rome decided to pull back and reassign some of their forces to other battlefields closer to home. The line to which they retreated stretched from Newcastle-upon-Tyne to Carlisle in northeast England. Hadrian's Wall was ultimately built near this location by Emperor Hadrian, just north of the existing line of military control.

The initial blueprint for the wall called for it to be constructed entirely from stone; however, the first 30 miles (48 kilometers) of the eastern section were initially built from turf and later refortified with stone. Connecting the wall was a series of fortified outposts called milecastles. These small guard posts were each placed about a mile apart, giving rise to their common name. Located between each set of milecastles were two observation towers. These towers allowed the Roman garrisons a desirable vantage point from which to keep watch on the restless tribes north of the wall. The wall was staffed with a total permanent force of approximately eight thousand soldiers.

The wall itself was 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6 meters) high and 10 feet (3 meters) wide. This was broad enough to allow soldiers to walk across the top. Archaeologists believe the wall was originally plastered and painted white to stand out from its rural surroundings. This allowed the wall to serve as visible testament to the strength of Rome.

In 142 CE, Emperor Antoninus Pius built a second wall—called the Antonine Wall—farther north. It connected the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde in Scotland. Upon the completion of this wall, many parts of the ditch surrounding Hadrian's Wall were filled in to allow for easier access to the north. The Antonine Wall probably served the same purpose as Hadrian's Wall.

In 164, Emperor Marcus Aurelius ordered a withdrawal from the Antonine Wall, with Hadrian's Wall again used as the Roman line of defense. By 180, British tribes to the north had crossed Hadrian's Wall as part of a major revolt against Rome. Parts of the wall continued to be defended into the early fifth century—a period of use that lasted almost three hundred years. After the withdrawal of Roman forces from Britain in 410, the wall fell into increasing disrepair, with many of its stones used in the construction of castles, churches, and roads. In the mid-nineteenth century, conservationists began a campaign to preserve the remains of Hadrian's Wall, arguing that it represented one of the greatest monuments of Roman Britain. In the twenty-first century, it is protected as an important cultural relic.

Overview

As Hadrian's Wall was a defensive fortification, it consisted of more than just a single stonewall. It contained several engineering features intended to heighten its effectiveness as a barrier against the enemies of Roman Britain. Beyond the stonewall, which served as the primary defensive feature, the entire length of Hadrian's Wall included a structure called the Vallum. It is an earthwork ditch south of the wall that runs parallel to the structure. The Vallum includes two parallel mounds, one on either side of the ditch. The mounds were built from debris and dirt collected from digging the Vallum ditch. The ditch itself was flat-bottomed with slanted sides. For most of its length, it was constructed 10 feet (3 meters) deep and 20 feet (6 meters) wide. Between the north mound and the wall, there was a military road. To the north of the wall was a second, shallower ditch. Occasionally, between the northern ditch and the wall was a line of spikes.

Archaeologists are uncertain how effective the wall was as a defensive barrier. Due to its great length, it was likely difficult to defend. The wall had limited military protection, and only small sections of the wall had garrisons actively protecting it. Rather than serving solely as a fortification against the Picts, it may have been intended to send a message demonstrating the strength of the empire, despite the distance that separated Rome from Britannia. It may have also served to act as a demarcation point between what the Romans considered "civilized" and the comparatively wild and "uncivilized" regions to the north. As such, the barrier likely offered a sense of psychological security to the Roman settlements to the south.

Bibliography

Bishop, M.C. An Archaeological Guide to Walking Hadrian's Wall from Wallsend to Bowness-on-Solway. Armatura Press, 2013.

Breeze, David J. Hadrian's Wall: A History of Archaeological Thought. Cumberland & Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society, 2014.

Breeze, David J. "History of Hadrian's Wall." English Heritage, www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/hadrians-wall/history/. Accessed 18 Apr. 2017.

Carter, Geoff. "Reverse Engineering the Vallum." Theoretical Structural Archaeology, 29 Nov. 2010, structuralarchaeology.blogspot.com/2010/11/40-reverse-engineering-vallum.html. Accessed 18 Apr. 2017.

Faulkner, Neil. "Overview: Roman Britain, 43–410 AD." BBC, 29 Mar. 2011, www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/overview‗roman‗01.shtml. Accessed 18 Apr. 2017.

Mark, Joshua J. "Hadrian's Wall." Ancient History Encyclopedia, 15 Nov. 2012, www.ancient.eu/Hadrians‗Wall/. Accessed 18 Apr. 2017.

Riley, Bronwen. The Edge of the Empire: A Journey to Britannia: From the Heart of Rome to Hadrian's Wall. Pegasus Books, 2016.

Southern, Patricia. Hadrian's Wall: Everyday Life on a Roman Frontier. Amberley Publishing Limited, 2016.

Stone, Peter G. "The Hadrian's Wall Major Study and 3rd Management Plan." Managing, Using, and Interpreting Hadrian's Wall as World Heritage. Springer, 2014, pp. 63–77.

Whitworth, A.M. Hadrian's Wall: Some Aspects of Its Post-Roman Influence on the Landscape. Oxford UP, 2000.