Psychological warfare
Psychological warfare encompasses a variety of strategies aimed at influencing the mental states of opponents and the populations they represent, primarily through the use of propaganda and psychological operations (psy-ops). The objectives of psychological warfare focus not on physical harm, but rather on confusing, deceiving, and demoralizing the target group, ultimately affecting their attitudes, behaviors, and emotions. Historically, the concept has roots in ancient military strategies, as illustrated by Sun Tzu's teachings on deception and undermining an enemy's morale. Notable historical figures, such as Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan, have employed psychological techniques to achieve military success.
In contemporary contexts, psychological warfare has evolved with the advent of the Internet, facilitating the dissemination of misinformation and propaganda through social media and other channels. Modern psychological operations can be categorized into tactical, strategic, and consolidation activities, with goals that range from immediate battlefield advantages to long-term influence on civilian populations. Terrorist groups also leverage psychological tactics to instill fear and manipulate public perception, demonstrating the significant role psychological warfare plays in current international conflicts. As part of a broader framework of information warfare, the implications of psychological operations are increasingly relevant in today's political landscape.
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Psychological warfare
Psychological warfare refers to a range of strategies used to influence the mental states of an opponent and/or the population it represents. Propaganda is one of the best-known examples of psychological warfare, but the topic also encompasses many other techniques, which are collectively known as psychological operations or "psy-ops." The goal of psychological warfare is not to cause physical harm, but rather to confuse, deceive, demoralize, or otherwise influence the attitudes, behaviors, emotions, and opinions of the targeted group. This is achieved through the deliberate circulation of carefully chosen information.
In recent years, the Internet has become a key medium for the dissemination of propaganda and other psychological weapons. Yet, as experts note, the means by which psychological warfare is conducted is of secondary importance to the messages it delivers and the effects those messages have on their intended target.
Brief History
When discussing the history of psychological warfare, scholars often refer to the Chinese military strategist Sun Tzu (ca. 544 BCE–ca. 499 BCE) and his seminal work, The Art of War. One well-known passage from The Art of War states: "All warfare is based on deception. Therefore, when capable of attacking, feign incapacity; when active in moving troops, feign inactivity." Sun Tzu also wrote that "supreme excellence is to break the enemy's resistance without fighting." Both quotes illustrate essential concepts in psychological warfare: the manipulation of information and breaking the morale of the opponent as a means of achieving victory.
Throughout history, many famous military commanders have used psychological techniques to achieve success on the battlefield. Alexander the Great (356 BCE–323 BCE) and the Carthaginian general Hannibal Barca (247 BCE–ca. 183 BCE) both used war elephants to shock and terrify opponents. The Mongolian warlord Genghis Khan (ca. 1162–1227) used fear as a weapon by sparing a few members of opposing armies, allowing them to live to tell the tale of his might and prowess. The Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro (ca. 1471–1541) subdued the entire Inca Empire with only 168 soldiers and 37 horses, a feat he was able to accomplish because his opponents knew nothing of trained military animals or gunpowder and retreated in terror and confusion upon encountering them.
Propaganda played a key role in the American Revolution (1775–1783), with revolutionaries painting the British as tyrannical overlords by exaggerating their actions during events such as the Boston Massacre of 1770, thus winning widespread public support for their cause. During World War I (1914–1918), both Allied and Axis powers dropped mass-produced leaflets in enemy territory to spread misinformation and manipulate the attitudes of war-weary citizens. By World War II (1939–1945), communication media also were used to similar effect. One well-known example was Tokyo Rose, an English-speaking Japanese agent who appeared on radio to relay false accounts of Axis victories and Allied defeats to American soldiers stationed in the Pacific region.
During the Cold War (1945–1989), both the American and Soviet superpowers developed extensive media infrastructure to spread propaganda, targeting their own citizens, allies, and opposing populations. Institutions such as Radio Free Europe, a pro-democracy radio network operating in Eastern Europe's Soviet bloc, existed alongside darker, more secretive initiatives such as the Central Intelligence Agency's (CIA) infamous MK-ULTRA mind control experiments. American propaganda is considered a significant force behind the eventual fall of Communism and the subsequent decline of Cold War tensions.
Topic Today
Modern conceptions of psychological warfare divide psychological operations into three broad, interrelated categories: tactical activities, strategic activities, and consolidation activities. Tactical activities are deployed during combat and attempt to trick or coerce enemy forces into taking specific actions that will give their opponents an immediate advantage. Strategic activities take a longer-term view and can target both military and civilian populations. Propaganda is a key example of strategic psychological warfare, and its goal generally is to influence the feelings or opinions of the targeted group, wear down opponents' morale, or spread information intended to elicit a particular emotional or psychological response. Consolidation activities are performed in the aftermath of a conflict once one side has emerged victorious. They are performed in an effort to win goodwill for the prevailing authorities, build or preserve order, or support incoming governments as they establish a new power regime.
While the rise of Internet technology has had a profound impact on the way psychological warfare is waged, its objectives largely remain the same. Novel forms of psychological warfare include the use of social media and other Internet channels to circulate so-called "fake news" stories, which are false or heavily embellished accounts of events with political or large-scale social ramifications. Russian intelligence agents also are alleged to have used the Internet to stoke pro-Russian sentiment in Ukraine's Crimean Peninsula in 2014, prior to Russia's annexation of the territory. The operation is thought to have been designed to create the illusion of a valid reason for Russian intervention in the region.
Internet-based media also have been exploited by terrorist groups such as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), which has produced slick, well-made propaganda intended to entice new recruits around the world to join their cause. Many leading experts note that terrorism itself is heavily reliant on psychological techniques to achieve its objectives. Major, well-coordinated terrorist attacks such as the attacks of September 11, 2001, and smaller, seemingly random and indiscriminate attacks against civilian populations are used to incite fear in a large group of people by targeting a relatively small part of that group. While the specific goals of terrorists and terrorist groups vary, they generally aim to create widespread fear in a population and a sense that another attack is always imminent.
Psychological warfare also is a critical component of the broader field of information warfare, which includes cyber-warfare and electronic warfare in addition to psychological operations. Information warfare is quickly emerging as a major influence on international politics, with prominent examples including the rise of the WikiLeaks platform as a repository for leaked classified and secret information and alleged Russian interference in the 2016 U.S. election.
Bibliography
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