Sāsānian Empire
The Sāsānian Empire, founded in 224 CE by Ardashīr I, emerged as a prominent dynasty in ancient Persia, representing a continuation of Persian greatness following the Parthian rule. At its zenith in the late fourth century CE, the empire encompassed vast territories, including modern-day Iran, Iraq, Syria, and parts of the Arabian Peninsula. Zoroastrianism was established as the state religion, with Pahlavi, or Middle Persian, as the official language. The Sāsānian political structure involved various powerful factions, including aristocratic families and military leaders, which often led to internal strife and revolts against ineffective rulers. Notable emperors such as Khosrow I and Khosrow II expanded the empire's reach and reformed its administration. Despite military successes against the Eastern Roman Empire, the empire began to decline due to overextension and internal conflicts. The Sāsānian Empire ultimately fell to the Muslim conquests in the mid-seventh century, marking the end of its significant influence in the region.
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Sāsānian Empire
Also known as: Sāsānid Empire.
Date: 224-651 c.e.
Locale: Iran, Iraq, Armenia
Sāsānian Empire
The Sāsānian (sa-SAY-nee-ehn) Dynasty was founded by Ardashīr I in 224 c.e. He defeated the last Parthian overlord of Persia. From the beginning, the Sāsānians depicted themselves as the true inheritors of ancient Persian power and greatness. They always tried to expand their empire’s power and control of territory against the Eastern Roman Empire. As its height in the late fourth century c.e., the Sāsānian Empire controlled most of Syria, Mesopotamia, the Arabian Peninsula, Armenia, Iran, and Iraq. Zoroastrianism (ancient Persian fire worship) was established as the official religion of the Sāsānian Empire; Pahlavi/Middle Persian was its official language.
A number of groups in Sāsānian society all vied for dominance: interrelated aristocratic families, high-ranking members of the Zoroastrian clergy, military commanders, and other members of the ruling dynasty. Power gradually became centralized in the hands of the ruler but could be lost again under a weak ruler. The military played an important role in domestic Sāsānian politics, for the army could and did revolt against unpopular or ineffective leaders. However, the army also formed the defensive bulwark against the chronic threat of invasion by the Roman army. Over the four centuries of its existence, the Sāsānian Dynasty fought numerous battles against the Roman army. Overall, the Sāsānian military was successful at holding onto territory it captured from the Romans, but the cost in money and troops weakened the Sāsānian Empire to the point that it could not survive its clash with the armies of Islam in the mid-seventh century. Although the Sāsānian Empire bested the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire militarily, the Eastern Roman Empire survived it by more than eight hundred years.
Notable Sāsānian shahs include Shāpūr I (r. 240-272 c.e.), Shāpūr II (r. 309-379 c.e.), and Kavadh I (r. 488-531 c.e.), whose patronage of the Mazdakite religion brought the Sāsānian Empire to civil war but whose invasion of Roman Syria in 502-506 c.e. was successful. Khosrow I (r. 531-579 c.e.) reorganized most elements of Sāsānian civil society, including the systems of tax collection and land allocation. He also restructured the army to make it better equipped and more efficient. He curtailed the rising power of the aristocracy and reorganized the empire’s civil administration into four administrative units. He invaded Roman Syria in 540 c.e. and looted the fabulously wealthy city of Antioch. This forced Emperor Justinian I to seek peace terms.
The last effective Sāsānian shah was Khosrow II (r. 590-628 c.e.). When the Eastern Roman Empire was weakened by internal strife in 602 c.e., Khosrow II invaded Syria and much of Asia Minor and eventually captured Jerusalem in 614 c.e. and Alexandria in Egypt in 619 c.e. Not until 627 c.e. were the Sāsānids driven out of the conquered territories. The expansionist policies of Khosrow II fatally weakened the Sāsānian Empire so that the Muslim army conquered the Sāsānian capital of Seleucia-Ctesiphon in 637 c.e. and annihilated the last significant remnants of the Sāsānian military at the Battle of Nahavānd in 642 c.e.
Bibliography
Strauss, Barry. “Rome’s Persian Mirage.” Military History Quarterly 12, no. 1 (1999): 18-27.
Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods. Vol. 3 in The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1983.