Hottest chili peppers

Chili peppers create what is commonly described as a hot or spicy sensation when consumed in fresh or dried forms. This sensation is caused by a constituent known as capsaicin, which chili peppers contain in varying levels. The amount of capsaicin a particular chili pepper contains is the primary factor that determines the intensity of the hot or spicy reaction it triggers when consumed.

Food scientists and researchers use a method known as the Scoville scale to quantify the heat of a particular chili pepper. The Scoville scale uses both a simplified and a precise scale, with the simplified scale using thirteen categories ranging from “neutral” to “harmful” to classify chili peppers and the precise scale using Scoville heat units (SHUs) to generate specific measurements of a chili pepper’s heat based on its capsaicin content.

Background

Chili peppers are the botanical fruits of plants belonging to the genus Capsaicum, which are members of the Solanaceae family of nightshades. While they are fruits from a biological standpoint because they contain the seeds of their parent plants, chili peppers are usually considered a vegetable in culinary contexts. Humans first domesticated chili peppers approximately 6,000 years ago, with domestication originating in what is now Peru and Mexico. Scientists since have documented approximately fifty thousand varieties of chili peppers worldwide. Chili peppers create their signature heat sensation by binding with pain receptors found in the tongue. While people often liken the sensation to a burning feeling, the consumption of chili peppers does not actually cause any of the physical impacts or injuries associated with burns caused by exposure to fire or excessive heat.

In 1912, the American pharmacist Wilbur Scoville devised a system for measuring the relative hotness of chili peppers. Originally called the Scoville organoleptic test, the method has since become known as the Scoville scale. It initially relied on human tasters to assess the relative heat, spiciness, and pungency associated with various chili peppers, ranking specific varieties of chili peppers on a relative scale based on how hot they tasted to human test subjects and how long the heat sensation persisted.

Scientists have since developed a more systematic and precise method of measuring how hot a particular chili pepper is by analyzing its capsaicin content. The system, known as high-performance liquid chromatography, measures a chili pepper’s capsaicin concentration. It expresses these concentrations in Scoville heat units, which generate relative comparisons to pure capsaicin. Pure capsaicin carries a rating of sixteen million SHUs, which marks the theoretical maximum limit of a chili pepper’s hotness.

Contemporary iterations of the Scoville scale measure a chili pepper’s spiciness in two ways. The first and most precise measurement quantifies the average SHUs found in a particular variety of chili pepper, with zero serving as the base score for a pepper that does not contain capsaicin and the sixteen million SHUs found in pure capsaicin serving as the functional maximum. However, the modern Scoville scale extends to fifteen billion SHUs to accommodate the levels of capsaicin functional analogs contained in a molecule known as resiniferatoxin, which is found in a plant native to Morocco known as Euphorbia resinifera (resin spurge). As measured by SHUs, resiniferatoxin is believed to be the hottest naturally occurring botanical substance ever discovered.

The second quantification method assigns a general descriptor to chili peppers according to their average capsaicin content as measured by SHUs. These descriptors include “neutral” (0 SHUs), “mild” (up to 500 SHUs), “warm” (500–1,250 SHUs), “spicy” (1,250–2,000 SHUs), “hot” (2,000–3,750 SHUs), “strong” (3,750–5,000 SHUs), “fiery” (5,000–15,000 SHUs), “scorching” (15,000–50,000 SHUs), “torrid” (50,000–100,000 SHUs), “volcanic” (100,000–1,000,000 SHUs), “explosive” (1,000,000–1,200,000 SHUs), “dangerous” (1,200,000–1,500,000 SHUs), and “harmful” (more than 1,500,000 SHUs).

Overview

As a point of reference, most commonly consumed chili peppers rate in the “mild” to “scorching” categories. Jalapeno peppers typically range from about 2,500–8,000 SHUs, while cayenne peppers usually contain 30,000–50,000 SHUs. Some Southeast Asian and African cuisines make regular use of chili peppers known as bird’s eye peppers or pili-pili peppers, which contain approximately 100,000 SHUs.

Until about 2013, a chili pepper variety commonly known as the Trinidad Moruga scorpion (Capsicum chinense) had the reputation of being the hottest chili pepper. The Trinidad Moruga scorpion has an SHU rating of approximately 1.4 million, and its status as the world’s spiciest chili pepper was endorsed by the Chile Pepper Institute at New Mexico State University. However, the Trinidad Moruga scorpion has since been supplanted by a chili pepper known as the Carolina reaper, a Capsicum chinense cultivar that was bioengineered and purpose-grown by Ed Currie, the founder of the Puckerbutt Pepper Company in South Carolina. In November 2013, the Guinness Book of World Records officially recognized the Carolina reaper as the world’s hottest chili pepper. Carolina reapers have capsaicin concentrations averaging approximately 1.6 million SHUs and peaking at around 2.2 million SHUs. The company reportedly created the Carolina reaper by cross-breeding extremely hot chili peppers from Pakistan and the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent. The pepper spray used by many police contains approximately 5.3 million SHUs, and pure capsaicin (16 million SHUs) has been shown to cause physical irritation to the bodily tissues of mammals.

In 2023, the Guinness Book of World Records dethroned the Carolina reaper as the world's hottest chili pepper. The title was awarded to Pepper X, which was also created by Currie at the Puckerbutt Pepper Company. Pepper X has a whopping 2.7 million SHUs. Currie unveiled his creation on the YouTube series Hot Ones. Currie spent ten years cultivating his creation, cross-breeding it with his hottest peppers to try to increase its capsaicin content.

From a nutritional standpoint, chili peppers contain small quantities of fiber and protein, and are a modest source of carbohydrates. They have dense concentrations of multiple vitamins and minerals including vitamin A, vitamin B6, vitamin C, vitamin K1, copper, and potassium. However, because chili peppers are usually eaten only in very small quantities, they do not normally make meaningful contributions to a person’s daily vitamin and mineral intake. Chili peppers are also high in antioxidants including ferulic acid, sinapic acid, and violaxanthin, and in carotenoids including capsanthin and lutein. Mature (ripe) chili peppers, distinguishable by their red exterior color, usually contain significantly higher quantities of antioxidants than immature (unripe) green chili peppers.

Chili peppers have historically been considered healthy, and research has confirmed that capsaicin has unique analgesic (pain relief) properties. Scientists believe capsaicin’s analgesic properties result from its ability to bind to pain receptors, which can prevent them from detecting other types of pain signals and relaying them to the brain. For example, studies have found that capsaicin can have positive impacts on people suffering from the pain associated with chronic forms of acid reflux. Researchers have also discovered links between capsaicin and weight loss, with chili pepper consumption being associated with accelerated rates of fat burning and reduced appetite.

However, some evidence suggests that excessive consumption of chili peppers over prolonged periods may increase a person’s risk of developing cancer of the gallbladder or stomach. Studies from India seem to indicate that red chili powder may pose mouth and throat cancer risks. However, other laboratory studies involving animals suggest that capsaicin may also function to reduce cancer risk. The scientific evidence regarding capsaicin and cancer is inconclusive, and experts have not yet determined whether it increases, decreases, or otherwise affects an individual’s cancer risk at all.

Tolerance levels for capsaicin vary among individuals and also depend on how frequently a person consumes chili peppers. People are known to develop tolerance to capsaicin, and the substance can have diminishing effects when consumed regularly. Chili peppers can cause uncomfortable symptoms and side effects, including painful burning sensations in the mouth, throat, and stomach, along with localized redness and inflammation. People with conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) are generally advised to avoid or limit their consumption of chili peppers, as capsaicin can trigger painful cramps and diarrhea.

Experts generally consider commonly consumed varieties to be perfectly safe to eat, but opinions on the safety of chili peppers beyond the “volcanic” level of the Scoville scale are divided. Currie, the creator of Pepper X, was one of the first people to consume the pepper raw. According to a 2023 article in Mental Floss, Currie experienced burning for a few hours after eating the pepper. The burning was followed by painful cramping. Others have sought emergency medical attention after eating the Carolina reaper. A 2022 article published in USA Today reported that in 2018, a 34-year-old man had severe headaches that developed several days after he consumed a Carolina reaper chili pepper. According to media reports, brain scans of the patient revealed arterial constrictions that resolved spontaneously approximately five weeks later. USA Today also reported that in 2020, a 15-year-old male also experienced severe headaches after consuming a Carolina reaper and suffered a stroke two days later.

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