Caste Systems

Caste systems represent a form of social stratification characterized by hereditary status, where individuals' social positions are predominantly determined by their family background rather than personal merit. This system is often associated with limited social mobility, meaning that one’s caste dictates not only social status but also permissible occupations. Caste systems can be rigidly enforced through cultural practices and legal frameworks, often leading to the oppression and marginalization of lower castes. A prominent example is the Indian caste system, which is intertwined with Hindu religious beliefs and has existed for over 3,000 years.

Within such systems, individuals classified as Dalits, historically referred to as "untouchables," face significant discrimination and exclusion from basic societal privileges. Although legal reforms have aimed to prohibit caste-based discrimination, social change occurs slowly due to the deep-rooted nature of these systems. Additionally, caste intersects with gender, leading to compounded inequalities for women, particularly in lower castes. The complexities surrounding caste systems highlight the interplay between tradition, religion, and contemporary social dynamics, prompting ongoing discussions about rights and equality. Understanding these systems is crucial for recognizing the cultural and social contexts that shape the lives of individuals within stratified societies.

Published in: 2021

By: Wienclaw, Ruth A.

Subject Terms

Caste Systems

Abstract

Caste systems are a type of social stratification system, hereditary by nature, and found in some cultures. Considered restrictive to an individual's social mobility, these systems typically result in situations where certain classifications of individuals — based purely on accident of birth rather than on their actions or character — are oppressed or marginalized. Though caste may not be the only variable that can affect social conditions, where used, the systems are thought to be objectionable not only from a secular view but from a religious view as well (despite the fact that most caste systems are based on religious considerations). More research is necessary to determine how the influences of caste interact with other variables in order to better understand the effects of this system.

Keywords Caste System; Class; Culture; Economic Development; Endogamy; Gender Inequality; Industrialization; Marginalization; Religion; Social Change; Social Stratification; Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Global Stratification > Caste Systems

Overview

There are a number of different ways in which societies can be stratified. In Western societies (and the United States in particular), we tend to be most familiar with the class system in which one's social rank is primarily based on an individual’s economic position and in which he or she can achieve socioeconomic mobility (e.g., upward mobility through higher education and concomitant better job or downward mobility through loss of job). In addition, we are also familiar — at least in theory — with slavery, an extreme and oppressive form of legalized social inequality in which one group of people is considered to be owned by another group. Another mechanism of social stratification is the estate or feudal system based on property ownership and the concentration of power in a small number of elite individuals. In addition, there are caste systems. These are hereditary stratification systems in which status is ascribed based on the status of the family into which one is born. Caste systems have low social mobility and one's family of birth determines not only one’s social status, but also the occupations that one can hold. The hierarchy of caste systems is rigid and often reinforced through formal law and cultural practices that minimize the interaction between members of different castes. One of the ways in which caste systems are reinforced is through endogamy, or the practice of limiting the selection of one's mate to members of one's own tribe, community, social class, racial/ethnic, or similar group. Caste systems are frequently based on religious considerations.

There have been a number of well-known caste systems throughout history. One caste system that was only abolished in the late twentieth century was the system of apartheid in South Africa. Under this system, severe restrictions were placed on the ability of blacks to travel, where they could live, the jobs in which they could be employed, and the people with whom they could associate. Segregation of blacks and whites was strictly enforced using a pass system in which blacks had to account for themselves to the authorities in white areas. Marriage between the races was legally prohibited, and blacks were not allowed to vote (Andersen & Taylor, 2002).

Caste in India

Arguably, the best-known example of a caste system still in existence is the Indian caste system arising out of the Hindu religion. This ancient system may date back more than 3,000 years (Ninian, 2008). Although this system of social stratification is based on religious considerations and role play, the caste system determines social status and limits not only what adherents can do within the religion, but also the secular jobs to which the individual members can aspire. By definition, caste systems are rigid and allow little or no social mobility, defining the socioeconomic status and religious privilege of members of that caste.

The highest caste in Hinduism consists of the Brahmins, or the priestly caste. The members of this caste are priests and philosophers, who were subsidized by the state. Within the Indian caste system, Brahmins were considered spiritually and emotionally superior to the other castes. The caste under the Brahmins comprises the Kshatriyas, or the soldier caste responsible to protect the country. This caste is the Hindu equivalent of the upper-middle class. Members of the Kshatriya caste would take jobs as professionals and government officials. Under this caste are the Vaisyas, of the trader caste comprising of merchants and farmers. Below this caste are the Sudras, or the cultivator caste. Members of this caste serve as laborers and servants to members of higher castes. In addition to the four major castes, there are numerous subcategories as well. Although the caste system in India is no longer mandated, it is still observed in many areas. In the present societal structure it can be more validly classified as "class structure" — with middle class, upper-middle class, and so on — than as "caste structure."

Traditionally, members of the upper castes have possessed great land and power while members of lower castes were servants and among the poorest people in society. This was particularly true in the case of the Dalits (or untouchables) who were not allowed access to public wells or schools, could not participate in village festivals, and were prohibited from entering some shops owned by members of higher castes. The caste system in India considered the Dalits unclean. In fact, the Dalits are considered to be of such low status that they are not thought of as belonging to the Indian caste system and actually have no caste at all. As a result, Dalits have traditionally been able to take only the most menial of jobs in the society. The term Dalit comes from the word dal, which means “suppressed” or “oppressed.” This term was used interchangeably with "untouchable" as being less patronizing and demeaning. Although discrimination against Dalits is officially prohibited and affirmative action measures have been put in place by the Indian government, it is estimated that, as of 2014, there were approximately 10 million so-called bonded workers, who are, for all intents and purposes, slaves as they attempt to work off debts they have inherited from their ancestors (Hawksley, 2014). Most of them are Dalits. Despite official policies on nondiscrimination, however, national statistics still show numerous crimes against Dalits (203,576 were reported between 2003 and 2009, according to A. Ramaiah’s May 28, 2013, web article for the London School of Economics and Political Science). Official figures, however, are thought to be low because most cases are not reported and only a small percentage of those that are get prosecuted (Ninian, 2008). However, on the positive side, the Dalits, also placed in the "Scheduled Caste" categories, have been provided reservations in jobs and their qualifications for many jobs that would require a nonscheduled caste member to have more qualifications and no preference or advantage over others from their category.

It can be argued that the caste system in India rises out of the tenets of Hinduism. In fact, twenty-first-century scholarly articles have decried Hinduism as the source of the caste system in general and the classification of Dalits in particular, a fact that most find to be objectionable, incomprehensible, and unconscionable. Further, many believe because of the nature of the caste system, people of good conscious should work for Hinduism’s extinction. Rambachan (2008), a Hindu scholar, responds to these accusations by examining whether or not the Indian caste system is actually intrinsic to Hinduism. He freely acknowledges that the inhumanity, injustice, and oppression that are part of the Indian caste system are legitimized to some extent by Hinduism and its practitioners, although he maintains that caste system is not part and parcel of the Hindu religion. In addition, Rambachan states that although supporters of the caste system appeal to it as being part of the Indian and Hindu traditions, the caste system, in fact, in many ways goes against the core tenets of Hindu theology. Religious leaders for centuries have decried the caste system as a betrayal of the teachings of Hinduism, and some have gone on to found other religions including Buddhism and Jainism.

According to Rambachan, the highest value within Hinduism is ascribed to God as "the single, unique, uncreated, and imperishable source of all that exists" (2008). Further, according to the Bhagavad-Gita — part of the Hindu scriptures — "God exists equally in all beings" (13:28). Rambachan interprets this to mean that Hindus should, therefore, overcome the caste structures of Hindu society that exploit or oppress other human beings. He further argues that to truly embody the spirit of Hinduism, one cannot be content to merely offer concessions to those who have historically been disadvantaged by the caste system. Rather, he argues that Hindus need to question the legitimacy of a system that gives different levels of privilege and value to human beings merely on the basis of exclusive notions of purity or impurity. He further argues that the Hindu notion of the presence of God in all things means that Hindus should be empathetic toward the suffering of others regardless of the boundaries of caste. According to his interpretation, Hinduism requires its adherents to feel the suffering of others as their own, to work for true social justice, and to abolish the oppression and exploitation inherent within the caste system. A very good example of this change in thinking is Dr. Bheemrao Ramji Ambedkar, a Dalit leader and the chief architect of Indian Constitution who overcame such barriers to reach the position.

Further Insights

Caste & Industrialization

A number of factors have affected the historically rigid Indian caste system over the past several decades. Industrialization has resulted in urbanization and increased mobility, which have enabled members of lower castes to move from villages, where their status was known, to the anonymity of the cities, where it was not. The creation of other features of modernization, such as school systems and hospitals, means that members of one caste are no longer isolated from members of other castes, resulting in less insulation of the castes from each other. In 1950, the Indian Constitution was written to include a provision to prohibit discrimination against Dalits from such institutions as schools and temples, and also from most forms of employment. However, because of its long history, religious basis, and social pervasiveness, the caste system in India is very ingrained and social change will come slowly. Therefore, there is a tension between the social change necessitated in response to modernization and the hope of economic development on the one hand and the desire for social stability and the retention of old ways on the other.

Caste & Gender

Caste systems, by definition, create a situation of social inequality and stratification between different types of people. Within a caste then exist other categories of individuals that are marginalized for very unrelated reasons. One group of people often marginalized or otherwise treated like second-class citizens in many societies is women. Around the world, gender inequality has been observed. Deshpande (2007) examined the overlap of gender and caste in India. Historically, there has been a trade-off between the greater material prosperity and concomitant confinement of women from the upper caste, and material deprivation but lower taboos regarding public visibility for low-caste women. However, as the taboos for public visibility of low-caste women become stronger, Deshpande sees this trade-off disappearing.

Low-caste women are worse off on both counts. Deshpande has also found in her analysis of secondary data that the standard of living for women continues to be low (both from the perspective of material wealth and from the perspective of health and nutritional status). In addition, Dalit women in particular face high rates of serious violence, with 1,346 rapes by higher-caste men in 2009 alone, the human rights group All India Dalit Mahila Adhikar Manch reported in 2012. However, Deshpande also found significant disparity between castes as well as for various regions of the country. This was particularly evident in the richer states. Further, women tend to be less educated, another factor that showed significant disparity between women in different castes. For those women who work, women in the upper castes are more likely to have better jobs than those in the lower castes (Deshpande, 2007).

A number of researchers have observed differences in gender inequality between southern and northern India. In particular, women from southern India tend to have more freedom of expression and greater mobility than do women from northern India. There are a number of theories concerning observed differences in gender equality within the caste system of India (Rahman & Rao, 2004). One theory is that the cultural bias in northern India toward marrying outside one's caste and the tendency toward endogamous marriage (and the concomitant lifelong access by women into the kinship network into which they were born) in southern India may explain the greater autonomy experienced by women in the southern parts of the country. Many economists, however, speculate that differences in gender equality exist because southern India has more labor-intensive crops compared to the northern provinces, thereby requiring more women to work. A third approach to explaining these differences is that southern states in India tend to have enacted more liberal state policies in an attempt to reduce gender inequality and that the rate of literacy is higher in southern states (Rahman & Rao, 2004).

Rahman and Rao conducted research to try to better understand the interaction between caste and other determinants of gender equality in India. They found that although there was a preference for cross-cousin and uncle-niece marriage in minority communities in the South, exogamy (i.e., marrying outside one's caste, class, etc.) is the norm in both the north and the south. In addition, they found that women in the north do not live farther from their birth families than those in the south. Further, the research indicates that women in the north and south both pay dowries that are of equal value. However, they found that women in the north were significantly more likely to practice purdah (i.e., the separation of women from men or strangers) than were those in the south. Rather than being related to caste, however, the researchers found that the purdah was more likely to be practiced by Muslims than by Hindus in both the north and the south. These findings differ significantly from similar research performed in the 1980s, leading the researchers to conclude that the kinship practices of India have changed during that time.

Conclusion

Caste systems are hereditary stratification systems with low social mobility and in which one's family of birth determines one's social status and the occupations that one can hold. As illustrated by the caste system of India, such systems typically result in situations where certain classifications of individuals — based purely on an accident of birth rather than on their actions or character — are oppressed or marginalized. From a purely secular, postmodern view, such oppression and social stratification is unacceptable and steps must be taken to eliminate the inequalities inherent in the system. For this reason, India has put in place affirmative action requirements for and ruled against anti-Dalit discrimination. However, it is not only from a secular view that the oppression and exploitation of low-caste individuals is intolerable. From the view of many Hindus, the oppression and exploitation resulting from the caste system run counter to the tenets of the religion and must be rectified not only by quota systems or cosmetic changes, but by true systemic change as well. However, it must be remembered that caste is not the only variable that can affect social conditions. More research is necessary to determine how the influences of caste interact with other variables in order to better understand the effects of this system.

Terms & Concepts

Caste System: A hereditary stratification system with low social mobility and in which one's family of birth determines one's social status and the occupations that one can hold. Caste systems are frequently based on religious considerations.

Class: A group of people or stratum within society that shares a similar level of wealth and income and that have access to the same resources, power, and perceived social worth. Social class is the stratum of the group within the society. (See also “social stratification”)

Culture: A complex system of meaning and behavior that is socially transmitted and that defines a common way of life for a group or society. Culture includes the entirety of behavior outlines, arts, viewpoint, organization, and other products of human work and thought of the society or group.

Economic Development: The sustainable increase in living standards for a nation, region, or society. More than mere economic growth (i.e., a rise in output), economic development is sustainable and positively affects the well-being of all members of the group members through such things as increased per capita income, education, health, and environmental protection. Economic development is progressive in nature and positively affects the socioeconomic structure of a society.

Endogamy: The practice of limiting mate selection to members of one's own tribe, community, social class, racial/ethnic, or similar group.

Gender Inequality: Disparities among individuals based solely on their gender rather than objective differences in skills, abilities, or other characteristics. Gender inequalities may be obvious (e.g., not receiving the same pay for the same job) or subtle (e.g., not being given the same subjective opportunities for advancement).

Industrialization: The use of mechanization to produce the economic goods and services within a society. Historically, industrialization is a society's transition between farm production and manufacturing production. Industrialization is associated with factory production, division of labor, and the concentration of industries and populations within certain geographical areas and concomitant urbanization.

Marginalization: To relegate a person or subgroup to the outer edge of the group (i.e., margin) by demonstrating through word or action that the person or subgroup is less important and less powerful than the rest of the group.

Religion: A personal or institutional system grounded in the belief in and reverence for a supernatural power or powers considered to have created and to govern the universe.

Social Change: The significant alteration of a society or culture over time. Social change involves social behavior patterns, interactions, institutions, and stratification systems as well as elements of culture including norms and values.

Social Justice: A striving to achieve justice in every aspect of society not merely through the application of the law. Social justice is based on the principle of universal human rights and working to ensure that all individuals receive fair treatment and equally share the benefits of society.

Social Stratification: A relatively fixed hierarchical organization of a society in which entire subgroups are ranked according to social class. These divisions are marked by differences in economic rewards and power within the society and different access to resources, power, and perceived social worth. Social stratification is a system of structured social inequality.

Society: A distinct group of people who live within the same territory, share a common culture and way of life, and are relatively independent from people outside the group. Society includes systems of social interactions that govern both culture and social organization.

Socioeconomic Status (SES): The position of an individual or group on the two vectors of social and economic status and their combination. Factors contributing to socioeconomic status include (but are not limited to) income, type and prestige of occupation, place of residence, and educational attainment.

Bibliography

Andersen, M. L., & Taylor, H. F. (2002). Sociology: Understanding a diverse society. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Deshpande, A. (2007). Overlapping identities under liberalization: Gender and caste in India. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 55, 735–760. Retrieved September 16, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=25241845&site=ehost-live

Hawksley, H. (2014 July 10). Punished by axe: bonded labour in India'b Brick kilns. BBC News Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-27486450.

Kara, S. (2012).Bonded labor: Tackling the system of slavery in South Asia.New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

McDowell, J., & Stewart, D. (1983). Handbook of today's religions. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers.

Ninian, A. (2008). India's untouchables: The Dalits. Contemporary Review, 290(1689), 186–192.

Patil, R. R. (2014). Caste-, work-, and descent-based discrimination as a determinant of health in social epidemiology. Social Work in Public Health, 29(4), 342–349. Retrieved January 25, 2016, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=96222950&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Rahman, L., & Rao, V. (2004). The determinants of gender equity in India: Examining Dyson and Moore's thesis with new data. Population and Development Review, 30, 239–268.

Rambachan, A. (2008). Is caste intrinsic to Hinduism? Tikkun, 23, 59–61. Retrieved September 16, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=28351132&site=ehost-live

Sankaran, L. (2013, June 15) . Caste is not past. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/16/opinion/sunday/caste-is-not-past.html.

Schaefer, R. T. (2002). Sociology: A brief introduction. (4th ed.) Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Singh, A. K. (2011). Crime against Dalit women. New Delhi, India: D.P.S. Publishing House.

World Bank. (2011). Poverty and social exclusion in India. Washington, DC: Author.

Caste Systems

On this Page

Subject Terms

Caste Systems

Abstract

Global Stratification > Caste Systems

Overview

Caste in India

Further Insights

Caste & Industrialization

Caste & Gender

Conclusion

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

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