Cultural appropriation

Cultural appropriation is a term used to describe the adoption of aspects of one culture or society by members of another culture, especially in a disrespectful or exploitative way. In particular, concerns of cultural appropriation arise when a dominant or more powerful group integrates cultural elements of a more marginalized group. It can involve any aspect of culture, and is often discussed in fields such as art, music, and fashion.

The concept of cultural appropriation emerged in post-colonial academic discourse in the 1980s and became increasingly influential in popular culture in the early twenty-first century. However, it has also attracted much controversy, in part due to disagreement over how to identify it and even over the definition of "culture" itself. Some critics argue that cross-cultural influence is both inevitable and highly complex, so worries about cultural appropriation are overblown and may even stifle creative expression or promote tribalism. Even many proponents of the concept note that mainstream accusations of cultural appropriation are frequently misapplied, straying from the scholarly focus on power dynamics. Yet despite such criticisms, many observers still find cultural appropriation a useful framework for examining cultural exchange and promoting equity and respect.

Background

People of different cultures have always interacted in various ways, from hostility and subjugation to admiration and collaboration. It has long been recognized that powerful groups tend to be culturally influential, whether by actively imposing their beliefs and practices on others or simply by inspiring imitators. However, sociologists and other scholars have increasingly considered the ways in which dominant groups are themselves influenced by other cultures. In particular, postcolonial thinkers investigated how majority cultures incorporate elements from minority or otherwise marginalized cultures. In the 1980s, the term "cultural appropriation" began to spread in academia as a way to describe a majority group taking (or "appropriating") aspects of a minority culture as part of a broader pattern of exploitation and oppression.

Scholars who advance the concept of cultural appropriation tend to focus on the majority-minority power dynamic to identify examples. Factors can include:

• Majority group stereotyping a minority group's culture.
• Majority group using a symbol of a minority group's culture out of context or without acknowledgment.
• Majority group profiting disproportionately from a cultural element originated by a minority group.
• Majority group freely using a cultural element that the originating minority group may be persecuted for using.

These considerations gained wider attention in the early twenty-first century amid the growing influence of identity politics and social justice movements in Western society. Commonly cited examples of cultural appropriation include White people dressing up as other ethnicities for Halloween costumes, the use of American Indian–themed sports mascots, and tattoos such as Polynesian tribal designs or Chinese characters on people with no direct connection to those traditions. Yet accusations of cultural appropriation have often provoked backlash, with critics pointing out the difficulty in establishing clear standards or differentiating from general cultural appreciation and influence. Further examples across a range of fields can help illuminate both the idea of cultural appropriation and criticism of the concept.

Visual Art and Literature

Charges of cultural appropriation are common in the arts, as artists have often turned to other cultures for new ideas and inspiration. The historical dominance of White men in the Western canon has also been scrutinized by modern critics. A representative example emerged in 2006, when a South African government official ignited a heated debate by claiming that the famed artist Pablo Picasso had stolen the styles of a number of African sculptures for his own artworks without providing due credit. The claim was made in response to an exhibition of Picasso's works in the city of Johannesburg. While the exhibition touted itself as a show of Picasso's African-influenced work, other government officials joined the original protester in claiming that the issue was more than simply inspiration. They stated that Picasso owed his fame to the African works, saying he had secretly appropriated and reshaped works and had been too cowardly to admit that the resulting works were not truly his own. Other observers dismissed the charges of cultural appropriation, however, arguing that such cross-cultural influence was common, and, indeed, often highly beneficial in art.

Cultural appropriation controversies can occur in print as well as visual arts. One example was the 2020 publication of author Jeanine Cummins's American Dirt, a thriller novel focused on the story of a Mexican woman immigrating to the United States. Many Latino and Latina authors accused Cummins of cultural appropriation in her decision to tell such a story outside of her own experience; much of the criticism centered on the factual inaccuracies in her depiction of Mexican culture and the lack of publishing opportunities for authors of color in the US publishing industry. However, some other writers have prominently defended the right to tell stories beyond one's own experience or culture, arguing that doing so is an integral part of creative writing.

Music

Many musicians and performers have been accused of appropriating the cultural identities of other societies for their own works. Some of the most frequently cited and examined instances involve the adaptation of originally African American musical styles by White American musicians. Jazz, rock and roll, and hip-hop all got their start with Black artists but found greater commercial popularity when White producers, musicians, and fans became involved. Therefore, some critics have suggested that White artists such as jazz bandleader Benny Goodman in the 1930s, rock star Elvis Presley in the 1950s, and rapper Eminem in the 1990s and 2000s appropriated Black American culture.

However, others have sharply contested that interpretation as oversimplifying the complex cultural exchange that tends to be involved in the development of new styles. For instance, while historians agree that jazz, rock and roll, and rap music were all pioneered by African Americans, they note that each genre also incorporated diverse cultural influences from their earliest stages. Individual circumstances have also been cited to deny charges of appropriation. For example, Goodman (who, coming from a Jewish family, was himself a member of a minority cultural group) was one of the first leaders of a high-profile racially integrated jazz band. Presley often spoke openly of being influenced by Black musicians and was in turn popular with many Black artists and fans alike, which many music critics have seen as evidence of respectful two-way cultural exchange rather than harmful appropriation. Similarly, skeptics of cultural appropriation have argued that Eminem's pioneering success as a White rapper did not overshadow or otherwise negatively impact Black artists, and arguably even boosted hip-hop in general by bringing out new facets of creativity and attracting new audiences.

Bibliography

Ahlgrim, Callie, and Yoonji Han. "Gwen Stefani is Only the Latest Glaring Example of Cultural Appropriation in Pop Music." Insider, 14 Jan. 2023, www.insider.com/gwen-stefani-cultural-appropriation-pop-music-problem-2023-1. Accessed 28 Sep. 2023.

Bevan, Stephen. "Picasso 'Stole the Work of African Artists.'"Telegraph, 12 Mar. 2006, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/southafrica/1512804/Picasso-stole-the-work-of-African-artists.html. Accessed 23 Jan. 2015.

Carley, Brennan. "A Very Recent History of Celebrity Cultural Appropriation." Vulture, 5 June 2014, www.vulture.com/2014/06/recent-history-of-celebrity-cultural-appropriation.html. Accessed 28 Sep. 2023.

Cuncic, Arlin. "The Differences Between Appreciating and Appropriating Culture." VerywellMind, 24 May 2024, www.verywellmind.com/what-is-cultural-appropriation-5070458. Accessed 7 Oct. 2024.

Flood, Alison. "Publishers Defend American Dirt as Claims of Cultural Appropriation Grow." The Guardian, 24 Jan. 2020, www.theguardian.com/books/2020/jan/24/publishers-defend-american-dirt-claims-cultural-appropriation-jeanine-cummins-oprah. Accessed 28 Sep. 2023.

Hall, Perry A. "African-American Music: Dynamics of Appropriation and Innovation." Borrowed Power: Essays on Cultural Appropriation. Ed. Bruce H. Ziff and Pratima V. Rao. Rutgers UP, 1997, 31-32.

"How Does Cultural Appropriation Work—and How Can You Spot It?" The Week, 13 July 2023, theweek.com/cultural-appropriation. Accessed 7 Oct. 2024.

Jacobs, Bel. "What Defines Cultural Appropriation?" BBC, www.bbc.com/culture/article/20220513-what-defines-cultural-appropriation. Accessed 7 Oct. 2024.

Mishan, Ligaya. "What Does Cultural Appropriation Really Mean?" The New York Times Style Magazine, 30 Sept. 2022, www.nytimes.com/2022/09/30/t-magazine/cultural-appropriation.html. Accessed 7 Oct. 2024.

Narula, Anushka. "Givenchy to Gucci: Fashion Houses Called out for Cultural Appropriation and Gaffes." Lifestyle, 8 Oct. 2021, www.lifestyleasia.com/ind/style/fashion-houses-cultural-appropriation-and-fashion-gaffes/. Accessed 28 Sep. 2023.