Global Ethics

Global ethics is an interdisciplinary effort to formulate an ethical system that applies to all nations and societies without reference to a specific cultural background or religious authority. Global ethics research accelerated in the 1990s due to ongoing concern over the consequences of globalization.

The study of global ethics can be divided into various schools of thought, including cosmopolitanism, universalism, consequentialism, and utilitarianism. While some believe it is possible to identify moral principles that transcend specific worldviews, critics argue that ethics are rooted in specific cultures and that it may not therefore be possible to create a single ethical framework for the entirety of human society. Global ethics have been applied to the formulation of corporate and state environmental laws, global human rights initiatives, and the effort to prevent corporate exploitation in international business.

Basics of Global Ethics

Morality is a philosophical concept based on defining or distinguishing between "right and wrong" or "good and bad," while ethics is a field of study based on developing and applying moral principles. The essential motivation of global ethics is to determine if there are ways to identify, justify, and apply moral principles that can be viewed as "universal" and can therefore be adopted by companies, political institutions, and individuals to govern interactions with other people and entities.

One of the major inspirations behind global ethics research is globalization, which can be defined as the increasing interaction, integration, and homogenization of the world’s cultures. Globalization is a defining feature of the modern world, facilitated in part by the advent and spread of digital connectivity and by the increasing tendency for businesses and corporations to conduct business on an international scale.

Global ethics can be applied to a variety of issues, including business ethics and practices, the morality of military technology and operations, and the ethics of environmental law and resource exploitation. Essentially, global ethics can be applied to any facet of human activity worldwide and asks whether it is possible to decide if the moral value of an action, practice, or behavior can be determined generally, irrespective of nationality, race, and specific culture.

One major issue in global ethics is authority and justification. Within specific societies, ethics and morals are often based on spiritual authority, such as the teachings of a church or perceived messages from a god, or on cultural authorities, including governmental, tribal, and social leaders. Because spiritual and cultural authorities are not universal, global ethics attempts to justify moral positions without reference to culturally specific sources.

Universalism and Cosmopolitanism

The universalist or cosmopolitan approach can be broadly defined as the idea that the human race comprises a single, interconnected community and that it is therefore possible to identify core moral values that apply to all people in all societies. The basis of this approach is the belief that there is an essential moral value to protecting the lives and well-being of all humans, or all living beings, everywhere in the world. This approach motivated the 1946 creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations, which holds that all people, as global citizens, have certain rights that should be protected regardless of nationality, creed, race, gender, class, or political affiliation.

One formulation of the universal approach is the "capabilities" model, which holds that the value of a human life can be tied to "capabilities," generally defined as the practical possibility to reach a certain goal. Essentially the capabilities model attempts to find things that all humans should be able to do. This approach, argued for by economist Amartya Sen and ethicist Martha Nussbaum, seeks to identify core "capabilities" that should be protected within any global ethical system.

Among the core capabilities identified by Nussbaum is "bodily health," which includes maintaining reproductive health, obtaining sufficient nourishment, and having access to shelter. Nussbaum also cites the ability to maintain "bodily integrity," meaning freedom from assault, freedom of movement through the physical environment, and freedom of choice in sexual matters. Among Nussbaum’s less basic capabilities are the abilities to enjoy recreational activities and play, and the ability to engage in free thoughts, imagination, and creative activities.

Similarly, cosmopolitanism, as embodied by the philosophy of modern thinkers like Kwame Anthony Appiah, maintains that it is possible for human beings to control the direction of cultural evolution, striving to become global citizens that recognize and celebrate diversity, but recognize the need to protect certain core values regardless of a person’s specific cultural background. For instance, cosmopolitanism may hold that the ability to engage in religion is a core value but not the need to adhere to a specific religion. In the 2006 book Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers, Appiah argues that unique cultural beliefs should all be respected unless the specific belief impinges on the rights of others.

Utilitarianism and Consequentialism

Consequentialism and utilitarianism are philosophies based on the overall function of a society. Essentially, the utilitarian or consequentialist approach holds that ethics should be based on the desire to increase the overall utility, harmony, and function of global society. The moral value of an even distribution of wealth, for instance, can be based on the utilitarian belief that societies function more harmoniously when wealth is evenly distributed, thus reducing the potential for economic violence like robbery or fraud. The popularity of the utilitarian approach is partially due to the fact that a consideration of the "overall good," or the "collective benefit," can be easily applied in politics, where leaders must consider both the common good and the position of the majority.

Consequentialism holds that the ethical value of a person’s actions can be assessed by determining the outcomes. Actions that can be seen to have negative consequences on others could therefore be classified as unethical. Social philosopher Peter Singer is one of the major proponents of consequentialism and has argued for the formulation of a global ethic based on empathy for the suffering of others and the desire to behave in such a way as to avoid harming other living, conscious creatures.

Humanity versus Individuality

In practice, some theorists believe it is impossible to create an effective universal ethics system because ethics and morals are the product of individual culture and history. Islam’s prohibition against icons, including artistic depictions of the Prophet Muhammad, provides one example. In a system where free artistic expression is considered a universal right, an artist is free to produce depictions of the Prophet Muhammad, though these depictions may be considered morally offensive to many Muslims. A consequentialist approach might therefore hold that artistic depictions of Muhammad are unethical, while a different system might protect the same depictions as a representation of a person’s ethical right to expression. Like the Islamic stance on iconography, many moral beliefs are highly specific to a person’s religion and culture.

Critics of global ethics may ask who ultimately decides which rights to protect and which to abandon. Majority agreement, for instance, might appeal to the majority but often leaves those in the minority vulnerable to exploitation or oppression. Without universal consensus, therefore, all ethical systems will likely violate the moral beliefs of at least one individual or group. Modern applications of global ethics put into place by companies and organizations like the United Nations, while attempting to address the common good, can therefore only reflect a specific perspective, and therefore fail to be truly universal.

Bibliography

Appiah, Kwame Anthony. Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers. New York: Norton, 2006. Print.

Horton, Keith, and Thomas Pogge. Global Ethics: Seminal Essays. St. Paul: Paragon House, 2008. Print.

Hutchings, Kimberly. Global Ethics. Malden: Polity, 2010. Print.

Nussbaum, Martha C. Creating Capabilities: The Human Development Approach. Cambridge: Belknap, 2013. Print.

Pogge, Thomas. Politics as Usual: What Lies behind the Pro-Poor Rhetoric. Malden: Polity, 2010. Print.

Sen, Amartya. The Idea of Justice. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2011. Print.

Singer, Peter. "Ethics." Britannica, 17 Nov. 2024, www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy. Accessed 22 Nov. 2024.

Singer, Peter. The Most Good You Can Do: How Effective Altruism in Changing Ideas about Living Ethically. New Haven: Yale U, 2015. Print.

"Universal Declaration of Human Rights." UN. United Nations, 2015. Web. 22 May 2015.

Widdows, Heather. Global Ethics: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2014. Print.