Hegemonic masculinity
Hegemonic masculinity is a sociological concept that describes the ways in which male dominance over women is perpetuated in society. Formulated by Australian sociologist R.W. Connell in the 1980s, the idea draws from feminist theory and the gay liberation movement, reflecting a broader understanding that gender is socially constructed rather than biologically determined. Central to this concept is the notion that certain traits, such as strength, aggressiveness, competitiveness, and emotional control, are valued as the ideal form of masculinity, despite only a minority of men embodying these characteristics to their fullest extent.
This idealized masculinity creates a hierarchy among masculinities influenced by factors like race, class, geography, and sexual orientation, with non-conforming expressions often viewed less favorably. The concept also acknowledges that expressions of masculinity can evolve over time, suggesting potential pathways for more inclusive and less harmful forms of male identity. Hegemonic masculinity has been explored in various fields, including education and criminology, where it has been used to analyze behaviors such as bullying among boys and the prevalence of criminal activity among men. Despite ongoing critiques, hegemonic masculinity remains a significant framework for understanding gender dynamics and has contributed to the growth of men's studies within gender studies.
On this Page
Subject Terms
Hegemonic masculinity
Formulated in the 1980s, most prominently by Australian sociologist R. W. Connell, the concept of hegemonic masculinity arose as a way of describing how male dominance over women is maintained in society. Its development was influenced by feminist theory and the gay liberation movement of the 1960s–80s, as well as by the overall growing perception in the second half of the twentieth century that gender is not a fixed reality but a social construction to which there are multiple alternatives.
Overview
The concept of hegemonic masculinity is derived, in part, from the theory of cultural hegemony, developed by the twentieth-century Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci. According to Gramsci, the social inequalities of capitalism are maintained, for the most part, not through force but through the majority’s willing participation in a hegemonic (dominant) culture that sets limits on what ideas and values are seen as normal and sensible. Although this culture validates a social system that primarily benefits only an elite minority, the majority feels enough benefit from the system that serious challenges to it are rare.
Similarly, hegemonic masculinity describes the social behaviors and expectations of men that function to maintain their dominant social position over women. Historically, the characteristics of this kind of masculinity include strength, aggressiveness (and sometimes violence), competitiveness, achievement, self-confidence, and emotional control. Although only a minority of men may possess all of these characteristics to the ideal degree, the majority affirm it as the most valued kind of masculinity and benefit from the pattern of gender relations it maintains.
Gender scholars also describe hegemonic masculinity as the dominant form in a hierarchy of masculinities that vary by factors such as race, class, geography, and sexual orientation, with homosexuality or any kind of perceived femininity being traditionally the least valued forms of male expression in Western culture. However, the characteristics of hegemonic masculinity are also seen as changing over time, leaving open the possibility, some scholars argue, of bringing a more inclusive, less harmful kind of masculinity to the fore.
The concept of hegemonic masculinity has found scholarly applications in a variety of social science fields, from education to criminology to organizational studies. In the field of education, hegemonic masculinity has been used to explain bullying behavior among boys and to study the way gender roles are subtly reinforced in the classroom. In criminology, the substantially higher rate of all kinds of criminal behavior among men than women has been explained in terms of men trying to act out a certain kind of hegemonic masculinity.
While gender scholars have subjected the concept of hegemonic masculinity to ongoing critique from a variety of angles, it has continued to play an important role in the development of men’s studies as a subfield of gender studies.
Bibliography
Carrigan, Tim, et al. “Toward a New Sociology of Masculinity.” Theory and Society, vol. 14, no. 5, 1985, pp. 551–604.
Connell, R. W. Gender and Power: Society, the Person, and Sexual Politics. Stanford UP, 1987.
Connell, R. W. Masculinities. 2nd ed., U of California P, 2005.
Connell, R. W., and James W. Messerschmidt. “Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept.” Gender & Society, vol. 19, no. 6, 2005, pp. 829–59.
Donaldson, Mike. “What Is Hegemonic Masculinity?” Theory and Society, vol. 22, no. 5, 1993, pp. 643–57.
Hinojosa, Ramon. “Doing Hegemony: Military, Men, and Constructing a Hegemonic Masculinity.” Journal of Men’s Studies, vol. 18, no. 2, 2010, pp. 179–94.
Moller, Michael. “Exploiting Patterns: A Critique of Hegemonic Masculinity.” Journal of Gender Studies, vol. 16, no. 3, 2007, pp. 263–76.
Moss, Mark. The Media and the Models of Masculinity. Lexington, 2011.
Ricciardelli, Rosemary, et al. “Investigating Hegemonic Masculinity: Portrayals of Masculinity in Men’s Lifestyle Magazines.” Sex Roles, vol. 63, no. 1–2, 2010, pp. 64–78.
Vanbeveren, Lilia. "Hegemonic Masculinity: Between Deconstruction and a Resurgence." Translated by Kerry Ann Marcotte. Gender in Geopolitics Institute, 8 July 2022, igg-geo.org/en/2022/07/08/hegemonic-masculinity-between-deconstruction-and-a-resurgence/. Accessed 28 Jan. 2025.