Political Inequality

Abstract

From an egalitarian point of view, the participation of women in the political process—not only as enfranchised citizens but also as candidates and elected officials—is in and of itself an important goal. In addition, from a social justice point of view, the participation of women in the political process is likely to help advance the state of women's issues and gender equality. Theorists posit that the ability of women to be successful in active participation in politics rests upon three types of factors: political, socioeconomic, and cultural. More research is needed to better understand how best to support women in gaining gender equality in this important arena.

Overview

Looking at things from a gender perspective, it is necessary to note that it was only a couple of generations ago that women in the United States did not even have the right to vote, let alone run for office. Although individual states extended the right to vote to women earlier, women in the United States did not win the national right to vote until 1920 with the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the US Constitution, which states that "the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation." Since that time, of course, women have made great strides forward in the political arena, not only registering their opinions through their votes, but also by banding together to form political blocs that encourage change or by running for and being elected to political office themselves. Yet, the share of parliamentary seats held by women across the globe remains low. According to data from the International Women’s Democracy Center, as of June 2008, Nordic countries had the greatest levels of women legislators in parliament, with an average of 41.4 percent. North and South America had the second highest percentages of female legislators, with an average of 21.8 percent. The Pacific Islands and the Middle East were the regions with the lowest average percentage of female legislators, at 13.4 percent and 9.6 percent, respectively.

According to data compiled by the Inter-Parliamentary Union, as of late 2017, Rwanda had the highest percentage of women in the lower or single house with just over 61 percent, while the United States had just over 19 percent (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2017).

Making Strides. Although such statistics may appear at first glance to be discouraging, women have actually made significant progress toward political equality over the past few decades. For example, in 2003, women won 48.8 percent of the seats in the lower house of Rwanda's national legislative body (Hughes, 2007-8). As of early 2018, women had also been elected as heads of state in countries such as Finland, Liberia, Chile, Taiwan, Estonia, and Croatia as well as the heads of government in countries including Germany, Jamaica, Poland, Serbia, New Zealand, and South Korea (Gomes, 2007). According to the Pew Research Center, 56 of 146 countries analyzed by the World Economic Forum in 2014 and 2016 had had a woman as the head of state or government for at least one year in the past fifty years (Geiger & Kent, 2017).

Factors Influencing Female Political Success

Political Factors. The literature posits a number of types of factors that may affect the probability of a woman gaining election to a parliamentary body. The first of these comprises political factors.

• Studies indicate that women are generally more successful in electoral politics in situations where voters choose among party lists and multimember districts rather than in situations in which there are individual candidates and single member districts. In general, political parties are more likely to nominate women candidates (and voters are more likely to vote for them) if women are among other candidates on the party's ticket. It has been found, for example, that many voters vote for a party ticket whether or not some of the individuals on that ticket are women, rather than voting for individual candidates.
• Further, research indicates that the structure of the electoral system is important for the election of women candidates. For example, there are differences between "the party lists/multimember districts system of balloting and the proportional representation method of seat allocation, whereby each party wins a number of seats in proportion to" its share of the votes cast in the election and the way in which they are perceived by voters (Kenworthy & Malami, 1999, p. 238). As the number of seats in the district becomes smaller, the identity of the individual candidates becomes increasingly important to the voters and, therefore, to the party.
• In addition, the partisan composition of the legislature may also affect the number of women who win seats. More liberal parties typically express greater commitment to reducing gender inequality than do more conservative parties. As a result, liberal parties tend to nominate more women candidates than do conservative parties; therefore, it can be expected that the larger the share of seats held by liberal politicians within the legislature, the greater the proportion of women among those seats.
• Another political factor that can affect the proportion of women elected to the legislature is women's voting rights. Statistics indicate that the longer women have had the right to vote within the country, the greater the percentage of women to vote in the elections.

Socioeconomic Factors. A second set of factors that are important determinants of women's chances of gaining election to the legislature are socioeconomic factors. The progress of women within the political arena is typically correlated with the progress of women in other arenas.

• One important area that appears to be related to women's political progress is their educational progress. Typically, individuals who are able to be successfully elected to the legislature bring with them educational credentials (e.g., law school, business school). Therefore, it has been theorized that in countries where women’s educational attainment is high the number of women who are qualified and motivated to run for office, and are, therefore, more likely to win election increases. In addition, voter participation and education tend to be strongly correlated. Therefore, many theorists believe that as women continue to attain higher educational levels, they will concomitantly turn out in greater numbers to vote, which could mean the election of more women to office.
• Another socioeconomic factor that has been found to be correlated with women's participation as candidates within the electoral process is their activity as part of the labor force. For example, it has been found that women who work outside the home are more likely to be active participants in politics. This can be due to a number of factors. For example, women who are active members of the labor force tend to gain confidence and other skills necessary to be successful in politics. Further, working outside the home could help women obtain funds to help them launch a political campaign. In addition, participating in the labor force affords women the opportunity to network with other individuals who can help them launch and run a successful political campaign. Many theorists believe that as women's participation in the labor force rises, they will turn out in greater numbers to vote and also be more likely to run for office. However, the mere fact of women participating in the labor force is not necessarily sufficient to improve the probability of women running for and winning elected office. For the most part, elected officials typically come from professional fields such as law, education, journalism, and business. Such individuals tend to be better educated, better public speakers, and more knowledgeable of both the law and the political system.
• Another socioeconomic factor that can affect the participation of women in the political process is size and strength of the women's movement within that country. Such organizations not only provide women candidates with a support network to help them win elections, but also can provide women candidates with political and financial resources to help them get elected.
• In addition, another socioeconomic factor that has been suggested to promote gender equality in the political arena is the economic development of the country. It has been suggested that the more wealthy a country is, the less likely it is that its politics will be preoccupied with economic concerns. As a result, both the political parties and the voters may be more likely to consider other factors, such as gender equality in the election of political officials.

Cultural Factors. In addition to political and socioeconomic factors, the likelihood of success of women in the political arena can also be affected by cultural factors. Simply stated, societies that tend to affirm, promote, or believe in equal political, economic, social, and civil rights for all people tend to be more likely than other societies to promote and foster the active participation of women as candidates and elected officials within the political system. For example, women's willingness to run for political office tends to be higher in European and North American countries than in other areas of the world (Kenworthy & Malami, 1999). The similarities of these cultures and the differences between them and cultures in other areas of the world has been theorized as one of the reasons for the success of women in politics in these regions.

Applications

Benefits of Women's Political Participation. Melanie M. Hughes (2008) points out that greater political equality for women is important for several reasons. First, women often focus on the creation and passing of different kinds of legislation than do men. In particular, women are more prone to focus on issues of sexual discrimination and harassment, family leave, reproductive rights, and health care that would otherwise not receive as much attention. The participation of women as candidates in the electoral process has also been hypothesized by some observers to encourage the participation of women in the voting process. For some, voting is considered a matter of human rights and social justice. Unfortunately, women have often been marginalized from political participation.

Increasing Women’s Political Participation. In some countries, quota systems have been set up to mandate the proportion of women that are to be elected to legislative office under the assumption that electing women who will pay more attention to women's issues into office will result in greater gender equality. However, Veronica Schild (2000) rightly points out that even when government institutions take steps to reduce discrimination and to open opportunities for women, official strategies do not necessarily translate into true social justice for women on a grassroots level. The political goal of achieving gender equality often becomes a technical task (e.g., creation of laws that prohibit discrimination) rather than one of true social justice for women.

Gender inequality is a situation experienced not only in countries that are still undergoing economic development, but occurs in developed countries as well. Rather than representing real underlying differences in abilities, the inequality of women typically has to do with the gender roles dictated to them by their cultures. Across the globe, women are slowly becoming more able to participate in paid, nonagricultural employment in areas where women have historically had low levels of participation in the labor market. However, in other regions, progress in this area is virtually nonexistent. Despite such advances, however, women tend to be more likely to be unpaid for their labors than men not only within the home but also as unpaid family agricultural workers. Because of this fact, women tend to have less access to social protections, job security, or education. Social observers and theorists believe that these problems can be improved through the election of women to political office (United Nations, 2007).

The 2016 presidential election in the United States was particularly analyzed in terms of gender inequality in politics as Hillary Clinton became the first woman in the developed country's history to be nominated for the role by a major political party. Running as a Democrat, she campaigned against Republican candidate Donald Trump. Gender was a persistent topic of the campaign, as political commentators and the media speculated about the issues championed by each candidate as well as how Americans, particularly, women, might vote in the election. Following the election of Trump in November 2016, debates ensued about why a majority of white women actually voted for Trump rather than Clinton as well as how much Clinton's gender did or did not play a role overall in her defeat. Some argued that the results of the election necessitated a deeper look into the complexity of identity politics, as assumptions based around Clinton's presumed popularity with the female population due to her policies supporting women (paid parental leave, reproductive rights, etc.) and the Republican Party's increased association with policies that do not favor women proved incorrect (McCall & Orloff, 2017).

Conclusion

From an egalitarian point of view, the participation of women in the political process—not only as enfranchised citizens but also as candidates and elected officials—is in and of itself an important goal. In addition, from a social justice point of view, the participation of women in the political process is likely to help advance the state of women's issues, children’s rights, and gender equality. Although progress is being made in this area, however, there is still a long way to go before women achieve equal rates of political participation as men in many countries. More research is needed to better understand how best to support women in gaining gender equality in this important arena.

Terms & Concepts

Correlation: The degree to which two events or variables are consistently related. Correlation may be positive (i.e., as the value of one variable increases the value of the other variable increases), negative (i.e., as the value of one variable increases the value of the other variable decreases), or zero (i.e., the values of the two variables are unrelated). Correlation does not imply causation.

Culture: A complex system of meaning and behavior that is socially transmitted and that defines a common way of life for a group or society. Culture includes the totality of behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and other products of human work and thought of the society or group.

Economic Development: The sustainable increase in living standards for a nation, region, or society. More than mere economic growth (i.e., a rise in output), economic development is sustainable growth that positively affects the well-being of all members of the group through such things as increased per capita income, education, health, and environmental protection. Economic development is progressive in nature and positively affects the socioeconomic structure of a society.

Gender: Psychological, social, cultural, and behavioral characteristics associated with being female or male. Gender is defined by one's gender identity and learned gender role.

Gender Inequality: Disparities among individuals based solely on their gender rather than objective differences in skills, abilities, or other characteristics. Gender inequalities may be obvious (e.g., not receiving the same pay for the same job) or subtle (e.g., not being given the same subjective opportunities for advancement).

Gender Role: Separate patterns of personality traits, mannerisms, interests, attitudes, and behaviors that are categorized as "male" and "female" by one's culture. Gender role is largely a product of the way in which one was socialized and may not be in conformance with one's gender identity.

Human Rights Movement: An international movement that promotes the cause of human rights throughout the globe. According to Article 1 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights: "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood" (United Nations, 2009).

Marginalization: To relegate a person or subgroup to the outer edge of the group (i.e., margin) by demonstrating through word or action that the person or subgroup is less important and less powerful than the rest of the group.

Sexual Discrimination: The differential treatment of individuals based on their sex. Although sexual discrimination can occur against either sex, in most cases it occurs against women. Sexual discrimination can be exhibited in such actions as lower wages being given to one sex for the same work when performed by the other sex, discounting of the characteristics or attributes of one sex in comparison with the other, or unfair hiring or promotion policies that are biased against one sex.

Social Justice: Efforts to achieve justice in every aspect of society not merely through the application of the law. Social justice is based on the principle of universal human rights and working to ensure that all individuals receive fair treatment and equally share the benefits of society.

Society: A distinct group of people who live within the same territory, share a common culture and way of life, and are relatively independent from people outside the group. Society includes systems of social interactions that govern both culture and social organization.

Socioeconomic Status (SES): The position of an individual or group on the two vectors of social and economic status and their combination. Factors contributing to socioeconomic status include (but are not limited to) income, type and prestige of occupation, place of residence, and educational attainment.

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Geiger, A., & Kent, L. (2017, March 8). Number of women leaders around the world has grown, but they're still a small group. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/03/08/women-leaders-around-the-world/

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McCall, L., & Orloff, A. S. (2017). The multidimensional politics of inequality: taking stock of identity politics in the U.S. presidential election of 2016. British Journal of Sociology, 68, S34–S56. Retrieved February 16, 2018 from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=126113876&site=ehost-live&scope=site

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Suggested Reading

Cassese, E., & Holman, M. (2016). Religious beliefs, gender consciousness, and women's political participation. Sex Roles, 75(9/10), 514–527. Retrieved February 16, 2018 from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=119498916&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Coffe, H. (2013). Women stay local, men go national and global? Gender differences in political interest. Sex Roles, 69(5/6), 323–338. Retrieved November 5, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=89599801

Connell, R. W. (2005). Change among the gatekeepers: Men, masculinities, and gender equality in the global arena. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 30, 1801–1825. Retrieved September 8, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=16670719&site=ehost-live

Griffin, J. D. & Newman, B. (2005). Does descriptive representation produce political equality? Paper prepared for presentation at the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association. Retrieved September 8, 2008, from http://americandemocracy.nd.edu/working%5fpapers/files/does%5fdescriptive%5fre ep‗produce.pdf

Kabeer, N. (2005).Gender equality and women's empowerment: A critical analysis of the third Millennium Development Goal. Gender and Development, 13, 13–24.

Lees, M. (2000). Women, work and politics in 2000. Social Alternatives, 19, 21–22. Retrieved September 8, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=3995953&site=ehost-live

Sandler, J. (2008). Gender equality is key to achieving the MDGs: Women and girls are central to development. U.N. Chronicle, 44, 47–48. Retrieved September 8, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=31598839&site=ehost-live