Primary elections in the United States

A primary election is essentially a winnowing process for voters to vet their favorite candidates to run for office. It narrows the field of candidates who go on to compete in the next stage, whether a general election, a local election, or a by-election (special election). Primaries are often organized by political parties and used to choose the party's candidate in an upcoming election. However, there are many different forms and variations of primary elections.

The American political system allows for much variety in how elections are carried out. The US Constitution outlines a few regulations for the selection of federal officials, but most election parameters are left up to state law. In general, however, the system requires candidates for political office to submit their names for an election, either as an independent or as a representative of a party. Primary elections are most commonly used to choose which candidate will represent a political party in the upcoming election. The specific rules and dates for primary elections are left to the party leadership in each state and may vary from state to state and party to party. Direct primaries involve voters themselves choosing candidates, while in indirect primaries voters technically elect delegates who then decide the party's candidate through a nomination process.

Closed primaries only allow registered party members to vote. Open primaries permit all registered voters regardless of party affiliation to vote in any party primary. There are also many variations on these two procedures. For example, a semi-closed (also known as "partially closed" or "mixed") primary allows unaffiliated voters to choose which party's primary election they participate in, although they may be required to register with the party in some way before casting a vote. In semi-open primaries, all voters can choose which party's vote to participate in, but must publicly request the relevant ballot from election officials. Other primary systems include nonpartisan or blanket primaries, in which candidates from all parties are included on the same ballot. There is also much variation among nonpartisan primaries; for example, "top-two" or "jungle" systems allow the two candidates receiving the most votes to proceed to the general election regardless of their party affiliation, while pure "blanket" primaries advance the top candidate from each party regardless of overall vote tallies.

Background

The primary election is core to American democracy. In parliamentary governments, parties select representatives and candidates, and the public votes for a party. By contrast, in the United States, the winners of primary elections are candidates in general elections with the winners taking office. However, due to the decentralization of most election responsibilities to state and local authorities rather than the federal government, the US primary election system evolved over time as a complex patchwork of different rules and regulations.

The major factor driving the development of primary elections was the rapid rise of political parties. Although President George Washington strongly warned against factionalism, the two-party system soon dominated US politics. In the nation's early years, most elections continued to use the colonial-era caucus system to select candidates. This quickly proved prone to abuse and corruption, as did the alternative of party conventions. Some jurisdictions began to implement direct primaries in the 1840s, as political reformers sought ways to check the growing power of party bosses. However, the modern primary system only truly began to emerge with the rise of the Progressive movement in the early twentieth century. Oregon established the nation’s first presidential-preference primary election in 1910. Over the following decade, almost every other state established some form of primary elections, especially direct primaries for state offices.

Still, it was only in the 1970s that primary elections became the norm among states for presidential elections. From that point, primaries gained more and more political and media attention over the years. The presidential primaries in particular became a major focus of national conversation. Primary traditions and trends, such as New Hampshire's role as an early testing ground for presidential candidates, became engrained in the broader campaign process. The 1980s saw the emergence of "Super Tuesday," an unofficial term for the day on which a large number of states hold their presidential primaries and therefore helps indicate the likely party nominees.

Historically, incumbents and party veterans have tended to dominate primary elections, especially at the federal level. The few incumbent US presidents who failed to win their party's nomination to run for a second term were mostly in the mid-nineteenth century, before the modern primary system evolved. One notable exception was President Harry S. Truman, who withdrew his candidacy in 1952 after losing to Senator Estes Kefauver in the New Hampshire primary. US senators and representatives are also rarely defeated by challengers within their own party. Incumbents typically have an advantage in name recognition, as well as existing fundraiser infrastructure and other party support. Nevertheless, primary challenges themselves are not uncommon and can still shape the political landscape even if unsuccessful, for example by influencing the incumbent to alter their platform.

The patchwork nature of US primary elections has led to much debate over the pros and cons of the various forms, and some state systems have been challenged in court. For instance, California established a blanket primary for some elections in 1996, but it was ruled unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court after several political parties argued that it violated their right to free association. Similarly, Washington state long used a blanket primary, but its system was ruled unconstitutional in 2003 and eventually replaced with a top-two format, which was upheld by the US Supreme Court in 2008.

Presidential Primary Elections Today

The US presidential primary elections preceding the general election for president are held every four years. In most states these are indirect primaries. Voters' ballots are used to select party delegates for their state, who then in turn vote for the party's nominee at national conventions. The exact rules can vary from state to state and between parties. For example, most Republican Party primaries award all a state's delegates to the candidate who received the most votes in that state, while most Democratic Party primaries allot delegates through proportional representation.

Additionally, delegates may or may not be bound to pledge their vote to the candidate indicated by voters. The Democratic Party system includes additional unelected, unbound "superdelegates"—typically high-ranking party leaders—who can help choose the party nominee at the Democratic National Convention by voting as they wish. Superdelegates were established in the 1980s as a way to increase party leadership's control over the presidential nomination process. However, the power of superdelegates proved controversial, especially during the 2016 presidential election campaign. In 2018, the Democratic Party changed its rules so that superdelegates could only vote if the nomination was not decided after the first round of voting by pledged delegates. The Republican Party system also involves bound and unbound delegates, but typically does not use the term "superdelegate" and has seen less influence from unbound delegates. Usually, both parties follow the practice of losing candidates "releasing" their pledged delegates so that the final convention vote is a unanimous nomination to show party unity.

State officeholders can also select the date of the primary elections in their own states. This can give smaller states outsize power to impact the momentum of candidates by acting as an early barometer of popularity. For example, New Hampshire's tradition of holding the first-in-the-nation presidential primaries (though preceded by Iowa's caucus system) has made it a popular campaign stop. Success in early primaries can give less prominent candidates an important national boost, while underperformance can cause candidates to drop out of the race. The varied timing of state primary elections has also generated controversy, however. Critics suggest that stretching the process out over months can cause voter fatigue and confusion. On the other hand, proponents argue that the long primary campaign allows voters to carefully vet candidates, assessing policy positions, personalities, and performance over time.

Data shows that voter turnout in primary elections tends to be smaller in comparison to general elections. Studies further suggest primary voters largely comprise party and ideological stalwarts. However, newer voters and independents can be mobilized when a candidate attracts them. Changing demographics and economic factors also play an influential role in primaries, just as in general elections. For example, in the 2008 Democratic presidential primary, Barack Obama, a relative newcomer to the political scene, prevailed over seasoned opponent Hillary Clinton largely due to a groundswell of support from young people. In the 2016 presidential primaries, the Republican nomination of controversial business magnate Donald Trump was credited largely to his success in framing himself as a political outsider and a resurgence of White nationalism.

Primary elections often serve as a unifying force in party politics. The presidential primary campaigns in particular can be raucous, mudslinging affairs with candidates decrying policy positions and questioning the integrity of their own party’s opponents. Nevertheless, the party eventually selects a candidate and usually most members fall in line for the general election. The 2016 election is a powerful example, as even Republicans who publicly traded harsh personal insults with Trump on the campaign trail largely supported him against Clinton, the Democratic nominee. Primary elections are both a screening device and a means to incentivize voters. They focus on a party’s core values, hone them, and generate that moment in time when sympathizers commit.

Bibliography

Bowman, Ann O’M., and Richard C. Kearney. State and Local Government: The Essentials. Wadsworth Publishing, 2011.

Gerber, Elizabeth R., and Rebecca B. Morton. “Primary Election Systems and Representation.” Journal of Law, Economics & Organization, vol. 14, no. 2, 1998, pp. 304–24. Accessed 10 Oct. 2024.

Hill, Seth J., and Thad Kousser. “Turning out Unlikely Voters? A Field Experiment in the Top-Two Primary.” Political Behavior, vol. 38, no. 2, 2015, pp. 413–32.

Hofstadter, Richard. The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States 1780–1840. University of California Press, 1970.

“How to Become the US President: A Step-by-Step Guide.” Procon.org, 2012election.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=004333. Accessed 10 Oct. 2024.

Hortala-Vallve, Rafael, and Hannes Mueller. “Primaries: The Unifying Force.” Public Choice, vol. 163, no. 3, 2015, pp. 289–305.

Kendall, Kathleen E. “Presidential Primaries and General Election Campaigns: A Comparison.” Praeger Handbook of Political Campaigning in the United States, edited by William L. Benoit, ABC-CLIO, 2016. Accessed 10 Oct. 2024.

Library of Congress. “Political Primaries: How Are Candidates Nominated?” Library of Congress, loc.gov/classroom-materials/elections/presidential-election-process/political-primaries-how-are-candidates-nominated/. Accessed 10 Oct. 2024.

Norrander, Barbara, and Jay Wendland. “Open Versus Closed Primaries and the Ideological Composition of Presidential Primary Electorates.” Electoral Studies, vol. 42, June 2016, pp. 229–36.

“Presidential Primaries and Caucuses.” USA.gov, 22 Aug. 2024. usa.gov/primaries-caucuses. Accessed 10 Oct. 2024.

“Primary Election.” Ballotpedia. ballotpedia.org/Primary‗election. Accessed 10 Oct. 2024.

“State Primary Election Types.” National Conference of State Legislatures, 6 Feb. 2024. ncsl.org/elections-and-campaigns/state-primary-election-types. Accessed 10 Oct. 2024.

“Why American Elections Cost So Much.” The Economist, 9 Feb. 2014, www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2014/02/09/why-american-elections-cost-so-much. Accessed 10 Oct. 2024.