Primordialism

Primordialism is the intrinsic sense of pride, dedication, and emotion that people extend toward their race/ethnicity, religion, language, history, and country of origin. Four primordial methods through which citizens of a country integrate into their homeland are described, including ethnic domination, cultural monism with equal citizenship, the unmelting melting pot, and "nations" within a nation-state, followed by a differentiation between "hard" and "soft" primordialism. The distinction between Marxist issues of "class" and primordial issues of "race" are characterized, along with past and current ramifications that relate to biracial identities. Finally, immigration issues, in conjunction with the roots of Latin ancestry, help unfold a primordial hypothesis.

Keywords Cultural Monism with Equal Citizenship; Ethnic Domination; Ethnicity; Hard Primordialism; "Nations" Within a Nation-State; Soft Primordialism; The Unmelting Melting Pot

Primordialism

Overview

Primordialism, a concept conceived by Edward Shils and expanded upon by Clifford Geertz, is commonly referred to in contemporary jargon as "ethnicity" (Gusfield, 1996). It is the bonding agent that adheres people to each other based on shared similarities such as race/ethnicity, religion, language, shared historical milestones, or inhabitation of communal land. For example, upon meeting, two Hispanic strangers that have never crossed paths are naturally oblivious about the various aspects surrounding each other's personality. The temperament, individual values, past influences and future aspirations that each possess remain a mystery to the other, though they nevertheless feel an instantaneous connection. Such endearment is founded on their primordial recognition of a shared ethnicity, perhaps based on comparable facial and bodily features that mirror their own, or that when their eyes happened to meet and the pressure to engage in trivial chitchat was demanded, their conversation was transmitted through a shared, native tongue. This scenario demonstrates the automatic sense of deep-seated affiliation and dedicated pride that often is felt in people when encountering those with similar foundational origins.

Geertz contributed greatly to the elaboration of primordialism in his 1963 book Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity in Asia and Africa , in which he touched upon the concept of primordial ethnicity. In essence, he acknowledged that three basic assumptions are utilized in the presence of primordialism, the first of which assumes that primordialism is not a product of social learning tenets, or the initiation, maintenance, and influence of social ties, but is instead imbedded within people through instinctual, natural, and biological means. Geertz used the term "givens" to describe such basic cultural programming, which he said came from "immediate contiguity and kin connection mainly, but beyond them the givenness that stems from being born into a particular religious community, speaking a particular language, or even a dialect of a language, and following particular social practices" (as cited in Anderson, 2001, p. 211).

The second assumption postulates that primordialism is ineffable and overwhelming, in that it cannot be described in words, despite its powerful influence. Finally, the third assumption intimates that primordialism is affective, and naturally emits sentimentality, powerful emotions, and fervent levels of attachment.

Four Methods of Integration

A relevant expression of primordialism in contemporary, international affairs surrounds the context in which citizens integrate with their respective mother country. Gusfield (1996) offers four typologies to describe integration processes, which include:

• Ethnic domination,

• Cultural monism with equal citizenship,

• The unmelting melting pot, and

• "Nations" within a nation-state.

Corresponding with its namesake, ethnic domination can be found in nations that profess a solitary, prevailing race that serves as its official representation; other cultures that reside in such regions may be deemed unwelcome, inferior, or subjected to ridicule and antagonism. According to Gusfield (1996), examples of countries that operate under an ethnic domination regime include "the place of Jews in Poland, of Arabs in Israel, of Koreans in Japan, and of Blacks in the United States" (p. 54).

Countries that uphold principles consistent with cultural monism with equal citizenship value egalitarianism, and an even distribution of power is strewn among all residents. Ironically though, citizens are still expected to adhere to homogenized standardization in which the defiance of uniform ideals is forbidden; such countries promote both equality and conformity. For example, although France embraces religious autonomy, Arabic students that reside in France are banned from adorning themselves with burqas (Gusfield, 1996) despite the fact that such attire reflects Muslim dictates (Shirvani, Sreverny, Moorti, et al, 2002).

The basis for the unmelting melting pot corresponds with the historical cornerstone of the United States, whose mantra commonly utilizes the "melting pot" metaphor to underscore its fundamental values (Salinas, 1997). The U.S. has always promoted cultural pluralism (Vega, 2006), and historically, members of diverse nations would seek refuge from the hardships of their native land by flocking to the promise of Ellis Island (Maddern, 2008). This pattern has endured, and immigrants continuously suspend their former ethnic identities through the attainment of American citizenship and communally merge into one assimilated populace. After obtaining citizenship, recently inducted patrons collectively garner an "American" identity to ensure their newly formed status, but are still permitted to attach a semblance of their heritage to such a classification (e.g., Japanese-American, Mexican-American, etc.).

A Not-so-Tolerant System

Although such a tolerant system (i.e., the unmelting melting pot ) would theoretically combine the best of both worlds, the reality is that American culture contains many examples of unjust transactions between the melding of old and new identities. A recent example can be demonstrated through treatment extended toward the Muslim community in the aftermath of September 11, 2001 (Pereira, Carton & Bridis, et al, 2001). While The First Amendment of the United States Bill of Rights proclaims the right to religious freedom (World Almanac, 2006), thus alluding to consecrated autonomy and free will, Muslim adherents have faced tremendous scrutiny and disregard, which carry underlying allegations of terrorist involvement. Expressions of such indictments have manifested through heightened airport surveillance (Mansoor, 2002); newly formed university policies that monitor international students more ardently (Palmer, 2003); and more pronounced incidences of schoolyard harassment from both students and teachers (Boyden, 2002). Incidentally, such retaliation within the U.S. has ventured beyond the parameters of the Islamic faith into distinct religions such as Sikhism ("Sikhs fight," 2005).

"Nations" within a nation-state can be described by countries that contain primordial groups that exist sub-categorically amid a larger society, both of whom possess distinct governing principles. Quebec's 2006 conversion from a Canadian province to its distinct "nation-within-a-nation" standing (Wells, 2006) clearly illustrates this principle, even though many Canadian residents were not roused by such motion set forth by Prime Minister Steven Harper. Residential indifference, according to Aubin (2006), surrounded the fact that Quebecers had unofficially considered themselves as a separate regional entity, since they "already have a national assembly, a separate income-tax form, a national capital … national everything, including language. They have already voted in a law calling themselves a nation" (Aubin, 2006, p. 26). Hence, the sanction merely legalized a system that had long been established by its members.

Hard & Soft Primordialism

Allahar (2001) distinguishes between two types of primordialism: "hard" or "soft." The hard version of primordialism can be described as concrete, established, immemorial, and incontrovertible. The sense of devotion most family units feel toward each other is indescribable and often operates under primordial, "blood is thicker than water" provisions. Similarly, the affectionate and proud manner in which people regard their ancestral family heritage, or the feelings of patriotism that citizens extol toward both their country of origin and their fellow compatriots, are classified as "hard" primordial examples. The logic behind such tendencies suggests that people innately gravitate to, or at least highly revere their "own kind."

Anomalies of this premise are demonstrated when people attempt to detach themselves from their ethnicities, a task that is convoluted and may be poorly received. An example of such a disassociation can be understood through a study conducted by Peterson-Lewis & Bratton (2004), in which they polled African American adolescents about their impression of non-Blacks who "act black," in the ways they posture themselves, behave, dress, and approach academics. Overall, the African American respondents deemed that "acting black" is negative. Additionally, Epstein (1994) highlights the reluctance and skepticism that those converting into Judaism face from the Jewish community, which raises the question surrounding whether people can divorce themselves from their primordial selves, or that which is considered objectively inherent, and acquiesce into new primordial territory.

Soft primordialism, on the other hand, is subjective, learned, and contextual. A person who is born in Australia, but reared in Italy might forge a strong sense of attachment toward his new home. From a hard primordial standpoint, levels of partiality should remain with his native, Australian roots; in taking a soft primordial stance, however, the appreciation that he acquires for his new Italian residency is equally legitimate. Fictive kin (Levi, 1990; MacRae, 1992; Muraco, 2006) is another approach toward elucidating soft primordialism, and relates to the families that are hand-selected via mutual interests, lifestyles, or through a forged sense of compassion, rather than the families that are established at birth. Although fictive familial relationships are not biological in nature, they tend to be grounded on sturdy foundational values, such as love, respect, and trust, and are therefore quite binding.

The convergence between soft and hard approaches to primordialism is further exemplified through the following vignette: Jennifer was raised by loving and supportive adoptive parents, who instilled many positive qualities throughout the course of her life, including unconditional love, patience, and generosity, of which she is deeply appreciative. Nevertheless, as an adult, Jennifer cannot extinguish a burning desire to pursue her birth parents, in order to gain insight into her lineage, and receive a sense of primordial comfort surrounding her objective, biological background.

Further Insights

Marxist Issues of Class vs. Primordial Issues of Race

Allahar (2001) also references the distinction between the notion of primordialism, or development that is inborn, against Marxist ideals that relate to class identity. Marxism, which encourages the rise of proletarian people to retaliate against the exploitive forces inherent in capitalism (i.e., "workers of the world unite!"), not surprisingly points to class discrepancies as the source of social malevolence, or the powerful blot that tarnishes the prospect of economic parity while promoting marred relational dissonance. This stance on classism is frequently documented by researchers who highlight the disproportionate resources granted to more economically advantaged families ("Less Opportunity," 2004).

Within schools, for example, Gorski (2007) points to the fact that teachers frequently voice their grievances about deficient levels of involvement among parents of their low-functioning, disadvantaged youth. However, he mentions that these teachers uphold unreasonable expectations for low-economic neighborhoods. One such expectation that teachers espouse is that parents should regularly attend conferences and other school functions. However, teachers who operate from this premise are under the faulty assumption that low-income parents have immediate access to transportation, or that they can easily take paid, personal leave from salaried, "9-5" positions. Moreover, Gorski (2008) highlights the following "myths" that are assigned to impoverished communities, which in turn, influence biased, community-related interactions: a sluggish work ethic, botched communication skills, and increased levels of chemical dependency.

At the same time, an abundance of research exists that point to primordial factors, such as race and religion, as the underlying sources of social disharmony. Examples include the tribulations corresponding with South Africa's racially divided apartheid that prevailed between the years 1948-1994 (Peters, 2004), and the acts of brutality revolving around Protestant-Catholic territorial disputes in Northern Ireland (McEvoy, McEvoy, & McConnachie, 2006). Furthermore, the prevalence of gang violence in the U.S. is yet another exposition on this matter, whereby membership is frequently based on cultural homogeny such as MS-13 (i.e., Mara Salvatrucha), which primarily draws upon Salvadoran affiliates (Harmon, 2005).

In examining the etiology behind social malaise, rather than focusing on one causal force (i.e., Marxism or primordialism), it is most comprehensive to conceptualize how these entities sequentially unite. There are undoubtedly numerous populations of people who fall under the realm of "poverty" in the U.S. One can tritely make the statement that "poverty is color blind" as it afflicts groups of people who embody a wide range of primordial backgrounds (e.g., White, Black, Asian, Latin, etc.). However, indispensable social blights, such as the unemployment rate, seem to target certain ethnic populations in substantially larger portions. According to Boyd (2007), 25% of African American men were out of work in 2007, a figure which doubles that of both Caucasian and Hispanic males. Among other factors, perhaps African Americans endure harsher levels of discrimination in both the academic and employment realms, which rapidly facilitates their advancement down the road to poverty. In other words, although poverty may be colorblind, the preexisting factors that contribute toward deprivation may be fully attentive to primordial characteristics. Or, yet another distinct possibility surrounds the fact that "generational" poverty (Payne, 1996) is ingrained within a person, family, and community so deeply that it tends to perpetuate throughout a family's line of descendents. Hence, future implications on classism might conceptualize its existence along primordial terms.

Dual Identity

The primordial identity of biracial individuals, or those whose parents are of separate heritage, is complex. Early studies revealed the notion that biracialism engenders an ambiguous identity development, which may bear disastrous outcomes such as substance abuse or suicide (Benson, 1981), as well as school-related infractions (McRoy & Freeman, 1986). Rockquemore & Brunsma (2002) denote a paradigm shift that emerged through the 2000 Census, in which over 6.8% of respondents overtly revealed their multiracial status, a trend that was more pronounced among young people. Furthermore, Rockquemore and Brunsma launched a study that sought to unearth current issues surrounding the manner in which biracial individuals perceive themselves, as well as whether or not society confirms their self-imposed identities. The study exclusively examined individuals whose parents were both Black and White.

The biracial participants indicated that they see each other in one of six ways: entirely Black; entirely White; Biracial (which is validated by society); Biracial (which is not validated by society, who identify them as solely Black); Protean, which is defined as someone who can adapt to any given context by interchangeably identifying as either Black, White, or Biracial; or as a person who transcends the concept of race by excluding it as a part of his identity. Of particular interest is the notion that one's primordial identity combines his self-labeled identification alongside that which is imposed by society. This incongruity, perhaps, is the contemporary source of biracial dispute, as opposed to historical documentation that revealed biracialism, in itself, as a primary impediment.

Viewpoints

Immigration Issues

There are many contemporary issues that correspond with primordialism, including the controversial influx of Latin immigrants entering into the U.S (Welch, 2006). This section will highlight immigration issues, and cross-section them with Latin and Native American extractions in order to delve into an unexplored hypothesis. A rapid succession of Mexican and Central Americans crossing the U.S. threshold and venturing into U.S. territory has caused widespread trepidation on behalf of many Americans who fear overpopulation (Motavelli, 2008), employment-related issues ("Immigration," 2008), inflated levels of crime (Peguero, 2008), and an incursion of cultural adaptations including the accommodation of Spanish-speaking barriers (Garvey, 2007). Political solutions offered by 2008 presidential candidates include the formation of a billion-dollar fence that will ensure strict border control, advocated by John McCain. Barack Obama's immigration reform policy supports upholding secured borders, but endorses legalized migration while fining those with illegal standings (Persaud, 2008).

Many Latin-Americans are of Native-American descent, which in part can be demonstrated scientifically by a study conducted by Gonzalez-Andrade, Sanchez, Gonzalez-Solorzano, et al (2007), who found that the genetic composition of most Ecuadorians includes the presence of Amerindian DNA. Sadly, according to an article submitted to the New York Times, (The killer, 1993) many Latin Americans have distanced themselves with their Native American roots, perhaps because of historical pressures to depart with indigenous customs and accept the widespread dispersion of Catholicism (Warner, 1998). An exception to such aboriginal disassociation lies among Mexicans, who take pride in their birthright and frequently display their ancestry with honor by proclaiming "Yo soy indio. Yo soy Mexicano" ("The Killer," 1993, p. 12). This dignified approach may also correspond with political representation that those countries allow. Although the prospect of Black and Indian politicians in many Latin American countries is shunned due to their second-class standing, members of these groups constitute governmental affairs in the following countries: Mexico, Guatemala, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia ("Revolt of the Poor," 2003).

Many people assume that Latinos flee their countries of origin in order to escape oppressive conditions, such as poverty, a lack of industrial and educational opportunities, or war-torn conditions that prevailed in countries such as El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua between the years 1984-2001 (Gleditsch & Beardsley, 2004). The United States has long been renowned as a wealthy world power, and many heartening aphorisms that describe its prosperous potential (e.g., "land of opportunity," "the American dream") have been coined. Indeed, Mexican president Felipe Calderón substantiates this premise through the following statement "Migrants are not delinquents…They are honest people in search of a better life for themselves and their families" (as cited in Thornburgh & Mascarenas, 2007, p. 50). In addition to the pursuit of a hopeful tomorrow, perhaps there is a primordial explanation that underlies the mass departure that Mexican and Central Americans embark upon that relates to their Native American heritage, regardless of whether they consciously accept or denounce that source of derivation. In other words, as a tribute to their Native blood, Latin Americans are migrating through American soil in primordial pursuit of their collective identity, to reclaim the soil that Europeans had appropriated from their ancestors. Because, according to Shils, "by kinship connection and territorial location…man's need to be in contact with the point and moment of his origin and to experience a sense of affinity with those who share his origin" (as cited in Allahar, 2001, p. 200).

In Group Behavior

Alongside primordialism comes the implicit set of rules to which people are expected to adhere. Families commonly express disappointment or irritation toward other members when in the throes of dissention, or teasingly harass fellow members as an expression of endearment. However, such cathartic expressions are typically forbidden when the person doling out such criticism resides outside of the family circle. For example, Jane incessantly complains to her friends about her unemployed sister, Sara, because she feels that Sara is lazy and worthless. However, if Jane's friends initiate a conversation regarding Sara's laziness or unworthiness, or if they make an observation validating the existence of such traits, Jane automatically becomes protective and defends her sister's virtue. This "unspoken" rule is also applicable to the larger society, and can be seen with regard to the seemingly inconsistent hypocrisy that some people apply toward their race, gender, sexual orientation, and religion. For example, in some instances it is considered socially acceptable for people to talk disparagingly about others within their same ethnic group, even using words that are repulsive and represent the abominable side of humanity. At the same time, it is offensive and highly deplorable for outside members to utilize such terminology. Critics comment on the implications of such a confusing rule, suggesting that it sends mixed messages, and emboldens negativity (MacDonald, 2007). However, from a primordial standpoint, perhaps it is a means for group members to vent their frustrations toward each other and/or joke about life's mishaps under the umbrella of communal protection, unity, and veneration.

Terms & Concepts

Cultural Monism with Equal Citizenship: Countries that value egalitarianism. An even distribution of power exists among all residents.

Ethnic Domination: Nations that profess a solitary, prevailing race that serves as its official representation.

Hard Primordialism: Hard primordialism is concrete, established, immemorial, and incontrovertible.

"Nations" Within a Nation-State: Countries in which primordial groups exist sub-categorically amid a larger society, both of whom possess distinct governing principles.

Soft Primordialism: Soft primordialism is subjective, learned, and contextual.

The Unmelting Melting Pot: Countries (e.g., the U.S.) that promote cultural pluralism.

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Wells, P. (2006). A symbol solution. Maclean's, 119 , 22–24. Retrieved August 11, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=23354809&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Blot, R. K. (2003). Language and social identity. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

Geertz, C. (1977). The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic Books.

Lydersen, K. (2005). Out of the sea and into the fire: Latin American–U.S. immigration in the global age. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press.

Newman, D. M. (2012). Identities and inequalities: Exploring intersections of race, class, gender, and sexuality (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.