Puerto Rican nationalism
Puerto Rican nationalism encompasses a movement advocating for the island's independence or enhanced autonomy, particularly in the context of its relationship with the United States. Following the U.S. acquisition of Puerto Rico from Spain in 1898, political debates emerged regarding the island's status, culminating in its designation as a commonwealth in the 1950s. The struggle for identity and political rights intensified in the decades that followed, marked by the formation of competing political parties like the Partido Popular Democratico (PPD) and the Partido Nuevo Progresista (PNP).
Some factions within the nationalist movement resorted to violence, seeking immediate independence through groups like the Armed Forces of National Liberation (FALN) and the Macheteros. These groups engaged in bombings and other acts of terrorism, which, while intended to draw attention to their cause, often complicated the island's political landscape and hardened U.S. resistance to their demands. The situation has continued to evolve, with ongoing debates over statehood, commonwealth status, and independence, reflecting deep divisions within Puerto Rican society regarding its future. As such, Puerto Rican nationalism remains a pivotal aspect of the island's political discourse, influenced by historical events and contemporary socio-political dynamics.
Subject Terms
Puerto Rican nationalism
Rise in Puerto Rican nationalist sentiment and the move toward independent statehood
The 1970’s saw the Puerto Rican statehood movement intensify as the political parties split over the issue of the island’s relationship with the United States. At the same time, violence became the tool of those seeking the island’s independence.
Following the 1898 American seizure of Puerto Rico from Spain, there had been disputes over the status of the island. During the 1950’s, Puerto Rico was granted commonwealth status, giving its citizens certain rights under American law. In 1967, a referendum over whether Puerto Rico should apply for statehood divided the island along political lines. By 1970, the main political party in Puerto Rico favoring continued commonwealth status, the Partido Popular Democratico (PPD), was split. A new party, the Partido Nuevo Progresista (PNP), was formed. The PNP challenged the PPD for political control, winning the governorship in 1968. In 1972, the PPD won narrowly and attempted to work with the Nixon administration to settle the status issue. However, the 1976 election for governor saw the PNP regain control by a narrow margin. The governor, Carlos Barcelo, aggressively pushed for statehood, filling the top jobs in the island government with pro-statehood followers.
Political Violence
Some Puerto Ricans were unwilling to wait for a political process to change the island’s status. In 1974, a group of Puerto Rican nationalists created the Armed Forces of National Liberation (FALN) in order to conduct terrorist attacks in favor of total independence for the island. In October of that year, New York City suffered a series of bombings of major financial institutions. The bombs caused injuries and rattled the nerves of New Yorkers.
On January 24, 1975, the FALN struck the Fraunces Tavern, a New York City historical landmark where George Washington had bidden goodbye to his troops at the end of the Revolutionary War. The bombing killed five people and injured more than fifty others as they ate lunch at the popular restaurant. The bombing was tied to the FALN, which demanded the release of terrorists who had attempted to assassinate President Harry S. Truman in 1951. Throughout 1975, the FALN struck, planting bombs at major businesses, including department stores and banks in New York and Chicago. The absence of injuries was attributed more to luck than any design by the terrorists not to kill innocent people.
The bombings continued in 1976 and 1977, including one in a Puerto Rican hotel where the island’s governor was meeting. The FALN continued attacking major sites in New York, killing innocent people while demanding that Puerto Rico gain its independence. The federal government responded by tracking down the terrorists and their allies and prosecuting them. In July, 1978, a break in the case occurred when New York police were called to an explosion in an apartment building. Inside they found bomb-making materials and a man who suffered extensive injuries when the bomb that he was making exploded in his face. This discovery allowed police to track down FALN members and put out of commission one of the group’s most proficient bombmakers.
The FALN was not the only group using violence on behalf of Puerto Rican independence. A group of homegrown nationalists, the Macheteros, promised to conduct a campaign of terror against the Puerto Rican government on the island. The group was not as active in the 1970’s as the FALN, but it did murder two Puerto Rican police officers. The attacks on the island were usually against American military posts. Their actions included exploding a bomb planted at a Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC) building as the new Puerto Rican governor was being inaugurated on January 2, 1977.
Response of American Officials
Puerto Rican politics had a limited impact on the actions of the American government. In 1972, President Richard M. Nixon formed a commission to study the status of Puerto Rico, but no legislation was proposed. The statehood question remained on the political back burner until the end of Gerald R. Ford’s presidency. President Ford announced on January 1, 1977, that he supported statehood for the island. With only three weeks left in his administration, Ford could do little to make the island a state but did place pressure on the incoming Carter administration to deal with the question.
Carter responded by making ceremonial overtures toward Puerto Rico. In September, 1979, he freed four of the men who had attempted to assassinate Truman in 1951. The Carter administration also attempted to improve the island’s economy by passing tax breaks for industry and banking that relocated on Puerto Rico. The 1979 Pan-American Games were held on the island, producing controversy over whether the United States national anthem should be played at the opening of the games or if it should be replaced with the Puerto Rican anthem. A compromise was reached that allowed both to be played.
The United Nations also became involved. A special decolonization committee was established. One of its members, Cuba, was headed by the communist dictator Fidel Castro, who criticized the American government for not allowing Puerto Rico to gain independence. Castro’s complaints were ignored, but the committee continued to attack the status of Puerto Rico.
Impact
The Puerto Rican nationalist movement both helped and hurt the cause for statehood and independence. The violence of the FALN and others only stiffened American resolve against bending to the demands of the groups and further slowed the process for determining the island’s status.
Subsequent Events
The political divisions continued in Puerto Rico after the 1970’s as the pro-statehood and pro-commonwealth parties battled for control of the government. A 1999 presidential pardon of FALN terrorists revived the controversy over the organization.
Bibliography
Malavet, Pedro. America’s Colony. New York: New York University Press, 2004. Describes the effort of Puerto Ricans to gain independence from the United States.
Melendez, Edgardo. Puerto Rico’s Statehood Movement. New York: Greenwood Press, 1988. Discusses the 1970’s movement to make the island the country’s fifty-first state.
Morris, Nancy. Puerto Rico: Culture, Politics, and Identity. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1995. Describes the changes occurring on the island in terms of its culture and political system.
Trias Monge, Jose. Puerto Rico: The Trials of the Oldest Colony in the World. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997. Discusses the difficulties faced by Puerto Rico as it remains an American commonwealth.