Skinheads and neo-Nazis
Skinheads originated in England, primarily attracting white, urban, working-class youth who felt economically and socially marginalized. They are commonly recognized by their shaved heads, tattoos, and combat boots. Initially, some skinheads engaged in racial violence against Pakistani immigrants and other minority groups. The movement later spread to continental Europe and the United States, where it diversified in socioeconomic backgrounds and ideologies, with some groups adhering to white supremacist beliefs while others identified as nonracist, including African American skinheads.
In the U.S., the skinhead scene was decentralized and featured various factions, with some aligning with neo-Nazi organizations like the White Aryan Resistance led by Tom Metzger. This group sought to recruit skinheads by promoting an anti-authoritarian, pro-working-class narrative. The skinhead movement was notorious for its association with violent acts, including murders and hate crimes, particularly targeting minorities and marginalized individuals. By the late 1980s, estimates suggested there were thousands of active skinheads in multiple states, highlighting their significant impact on the landscape of extremist groups in America.
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Subject Terms
Skinheads and neo-Nazis
Members of white supremacist movements
The skinheads developed into one of the largest and most violent white separatist movements in the United States in the 1980s, a decade characterized by an increase in hate groups nationwide.
The skinhead phenomenon had its origins in England. The movement generally attracted white, urban, working-class youth between the ages of thirteen and twenty-five. These individuals were concerned about the economic and social obstacles they were encountering in Great Britain because of their limited education and competition from immigrants. Skinheads could be identified by their shaved or closely cropped hair, their tattoos, and their combat boots. Some skinheads were involved in racial attacks against Pakistani immigrants and homosexuals. Over time, the skinhead phenomenon spread from England to continental Europe, where it also attracted working-class youth. By the early 1980s, skinheads began to appear in the United States. While the American skinheads’ appearance was similar to that of their European counterparts, their socioeconomic background was more diverse, with the movement comprising alienated middle-class and working-class youth. Many came from broken homes, and becoming a skinhead gave these youths a new identity and sense of belonging.
The American skinhead movement was also more diverse in ideology. Some skinhead groups followed a white supremacist ideology, while others were nonracists. In fact, there were also African American skinheads. The racially oriented skinheads adopted an eclectic pattern of racial beliefs. Some followed orthodox Nazi ideology, while others adhered to a mixture of racial beliefs including populism, ethnocentrism, and ultranationalist chauvinism. The racial skinheads had a special war cry, “RAHOWA,” which stood for “racial holy war.” These skinheads targeted minority groups, including African Americans, Asians, and Hispanics. They also attacked homosexuals and homeless people.
“White power” music was one of the major recruiting tools of the skinhead movement. The first white power band, Skrewdriver, was started by Ian Stuart Donaldson in England in 1977. Donaldson, who dropped his surname and became known as Ian Stuart, aligned himself with the neofascist British National Front in 1979. In the United States, skinhead music was linked to “Oi,” a music form distinct from punk rock, hardcore, or heavy metal. These bands played a type of rock whose lyrics focused on bigotry and violence. In time, a number of skinhead bands emerged in the United States with names such as Angry White Youth, Extreme Hatred, Aggravated Assault, Aryan, Thunder Bound for Glory, RAHOWA, and New Minority.
The skinhead movement was a decentralized movement with no hierarchy or central leadership. Many different skinhead groups operated in the United States, with the greatest concentration on the West Coast.Several neo-Nazi organizations began to try recruiting the racial skinheads into their organizations. The most notable attempt was by former Ku Klux Klan member Tom Metzger and his son, John Metzger. Tom Metzger, a television repairman from Fallbrook, California, was the founder and leader of a neo-Nazi organization called the White Aryan Resistance (WAR). Metzger began actively to recruit skinheads into WAR by portraying his organization as anti-authoritarian and pro-working class. In 1986, he founded the Aryan Youth Movement, a division of WAR that targeted skinheads for recruitment, and included an Aryan Youth Movement newspaper among his WAR publications.
Metzger also held the first so-called hate rock fest, Aryan Fest, in Oklahoma in 1988. This event attracted skinheads from throughout the United States and served as a recruiting tool for Metzger and his organization. Within a few years, the Aryan Youth Movement successfully formed alliances with skinheads in a number of cities, including San Francisco, California; Portland, Oregon; Tulsa, Oklahoma; Cincinnati, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; and New York City. Metzger’s attempt to control the skinhead movement was curtailed following the murder of an Ethiopian immigrant by three skinheads in Portland, Oregon, in November, 1988. After the skinheads pleaded guilty to murder, the Southern Poverty Law Center brought a civil wrongful death suit against the Metzgers on behalf of the victim’s family and won a $12.5 million verdict. This judgment ruined Metzger financially and effectively ended his recruitment of skinheads through the White Aryan Resistance.
Impact
The racial skinhead movement in the United States attracted alienated youth during the 1980s. In 1989, the Anti-Defamation League estimated there were three thousand activist skinheads in thirty-one states. Although the movement was small and decentralized, skinheads were responsible for a large number of violent acts. Many of these were crimes of opportunity that were carried out spontaneously by skinheads. From 1987 to 1990, skinheads were responsible for at least six murders in the United States. In addition, skinheads committed thousands of other violent crimes, including beatings, stabbings, shootings, thefts, and synagogue desecrations.
Bibliography
Dobratz, Betty A., and Stephanie Shanks-Meile. The White Separatist Movement in the United States. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. Analysis of the white separatist movement, including skinheads, based on interviews, movement-generated documents, and participant observation.
Feinman, Sasha. "The Vast, Hidden Community Of Racial Hatred In America." Think Progress, 23 July 2015. https://thinkprogress.org/the-vast-hidden-community-of-racial-hatred-in-america-311cfb33ec8a#.nbxt0j509. Accessed on 30 Nov. 2016.
Hamm, Mark S. American Skinheads: The Criminology and Control of Hate Crime . Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1993. Sociological analysis of the skinhead movement and hate crimes.
Moore, Jack B. Skinheads Shaved for Battle: A Cultural History of American Skinheads. Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1993. Examines the roots of the skinhead movement, both English and American, as well as the ideas, activities, modes of organization, and role of music in the movement.
"Racist Skinheads: Understanding the Threat." Southern Poverty Law Center, 25 June 2012. https://www.splcenter.org/20100126/racist-skinheads-understanding-threat. Accessed on 29 Nov. 2016.
Ridgeway, James. Blood in the Face: The Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, Nazi Skinheads, and the Rise of a New White Culture. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1990. Traces the evolution of the racial Right in the United States, with a focus on racial organizations and their activities in the 1980’s.