White Privilege: The Invisible Advantages and Apparent Disadvantages

White privilege refers to the inherent advantages that White individuals experience in society, often without recognizing these benefits. Defined as an "invisible package of unearned assets," White privilege manifests in various ways, allowing White people to navigate daily life with less scrutiny and fewer obstacles compared to people of color. This phenomenon is often contrasted with the experiences of racial minorities, who are acutely aware of the privileges denied to them, highlighting a systemic inequality in power and social status.

The persistence of White privilege is supported by cultural factors such as color-blindness—an attitude that ignores racial disparities—and whitewashing, which promotes White culture while minimizing the experiences of people of color. Additionally, the concept of White complicity suggests that all White individuals, regardless of intent, benefit from this system, making the acknowledgment of privilege an essential step toward understanding and addressing racial inequities.

Educational approaches, such as multicultural education, are vital in fostering awareness and discussions around White privilege. These methods encourage critical thinking and inclusivity, allowing individuals to reflect on their privileges and create alliances aimed at dismantling systemic injustices. Engaging White individuals in conversations about their privilege remains a necessary and challenging endeavor, as resistance and defensiveness often arise when confronting these uncomfortable truths.

Published in: 2023

By: McFeeters, Belinda Bennett

Subject Terms

White Privilege: The Invisible Advantages and Apparent Disadvantages

Abstract

This article discusses White privilege and the impact it has on White people as well as people of color. White privilege is defined as the differences in power between White people and people of color, including the advantages White people automatically take for granted and the apparent disadvantages for minorities. Ways in which White privilege persists, as well as educational methods that help people acknowledge and better understand White privilege, are addressed.

Overview

Defining White Privilege. The general concept of privilege, as defined by McIntosh (2001), is "an invisible package of unearned assets" that someone "can count on cashing in each day" (p. 95). Applebaum (2008) suggests that most privileged people take their benefits for granted and are oblivious to their privilege. She goes on to explain that privilege is more than just benefits given to certain people. It also includes various outlooks on life and character traits, which for the privileged, are seen as regular everyday experiences that all people have (Crosby, 1997; Hurtado & Stewart, 1997).

Conversely, racial minorities are very aware of the privileges that are continuously denied to them and see this phenomenon as unearned privileges consistently given to the dominant group. For members of the out-group, it is a constant reminder of their second-class citizen status (McIntosh, 2001). This is where White privilege comes in. Though White privilege has been defined in various ways, a common definition describes White privilege as the differences in power between White people and people of color, including the advantages White people automatically take for granted ("Defining Whiteness and White Privilege," n.d.). Additionally, McIntosh (1990) says that the "knapsack" associated with White privilege consists of special provisions such as maps, codebooks, clothes, blank checks, etc., which White people are taught not to recognize or acknowledge.

White privilege has also been described as the other side of racism. Some White individuals find it easier to condemn racist acts than to take responsibility for the privileges that come along with being White. By genuinely examining White privilege, however, one gains a better understanding about who benefits from racism and how those benefits occur. Steps can be taken to dismantle White privilege on an institutional and personal level, once we understand how White privilege truly operates (Rothenberg, 2021).

A Double Standard. Ignorance around White privilege persists as research studies continue to find major differences regarding race relations between European Americans and African Americans, with White Americans often making light of racist acts against minorities that are often tied to White privilege (Ludwig, 2000). However, when White people feel their racial identity is threatened, they often respond with various acts of racism against those in the out-group, as an attempt to protect members of the in-group (Branscombe, Schmitt & Schiffhaer, 2007).

This double standard has persisted for many years, as most Whites continue to be ignorant about race disparities and the invisible advantages among their group. For example, though White Americans consistently excel higher than racial minorities overall, from a wealth and social status perspective (Farley & Allen, 1987; Killian, 1990; Sidanius & Pratto, 1999; Sigelman & Welch, 1991), Whites generally do not associate their success with being privileged (McIntosh, 1992). In fact, when some are asked to think about their White privilege, instead of discussing their advantages, they feel as though their identity is threatened and, in response, begin to justify various racial inequalities and their own deservedness (McIntosh, 1992; Branscombe, Schmitt & Schiffhaer, 2007).

For example, Rothenburg (2021) describes a study in which people were asked to think about their childhood and when and how they first learned about race. Minorities, including African Americans, Koreans, Chinese, and Latino people, had vivid, specific memories about how they were taught or in some way discovered their own race. Some were painful memories in which they found, after being invited to a childhood friend's house to play, that the color of their skin began to make a difference and they were no longer welcome at their friend's home. Other memories involved minority girls playing with White dolls with blond hair that looked nothing like them. However, when White individuals were asked to think about when they first learned about race, they often drew a blank and could not remember a time when they noticed they were White. Some explained that, for them, being White was the norm and was essentially everywhere (Rothenberg, 2021).

Further Insights

Why White Privilege Continues to Persist. There are several reasons why White privilege is able to persist. Color-blindness is one example. Color-blindness is a refusal to see race or acknowledge White privilege. It is a self-imposed blindness that White people are taught, that instructs them to ignore race. In other words, those who buy into the idea believe that "race does not exist as a meaningful category and . . . that the benefits accrued to White people are earned by (gifted) individuals rather than systemically conferred" (Gordon, 2005, p. 281).

Similarly, a state of "not-knowing" is a factor that causes White privilege to persist. May (2006) describes this phenomenon as the things members of dominant groups are taught not to know. There are many things they are encouraged not to see and are rewarded for doing so. Therefore, Applebaum (2008) adds, not-knowing the dominant group muddles the consequences of an unjust system such that they do not have to consider their role in continuing to perpetuate the injustices placed on those in the out-group and, at the same time, see themselves as "good" (McIntosh, 2001).

Another culprit of White privilege is whitewashing. Whitewashing is a process that denies race and, at the same time, promotes the White culture. In the workplace, whitewashing is responsible for maintaining the White culture as the dominant culture of business politics (Reitman, 2006). The workplace involves meaningful relationships and power politics that have a significant effect on the experiences of employees. So, through hiring, firing, and promotion, the role whitewashing plays in the workplace can be powerful (Wilson, 1996), as day-to-day practices attempt to reject racial politics in the workplace while superimposing the White culture at the same time (Reitman, 2006).

White privilege is also discussed in terms of White complicity. Similarly, White complicity involves unconscious negative beliefs and attitudes toward minorities and the idea that White people benefit from those group privileges of racism that at the same time marginalize people of color. Some posit that all Whites are complicit because they benefit from White privilege, even though these privileges have not been asked for and cannot be renounced. The starting point for addressing these issues and creating a shared language with people of color, however, is for Whites to acknowledge complicity rather than deny it (Probyn, 2004; Tatum, 1997).

The White complicity philosophy argues that if White Americans engage in discussions about their privileges rather than resist these discussions, there is a greater possibility that alliances can be established between the privileged and unprivileged. These alliances can ultimately resolve the unjust system that continues to exist in American society (Applebaum, 2008).

In 2014, White privilege began being discussed in mainstream media with a prominence it had not previously had, in part because of the forming of the Black Lives Matter social justice movement. While Black Lives Matter caused many to face their own White privilege, it also caused hostility from right-wing critics who decried the idea of White privilege.

Using Multicultural Education to Address White Privilege. Addressing ways in which White privilege persists and educating students and others about injustices associated with White privilege are key to balancing privilege among all groups. Multicultural education, for example, is an educational approach that incorporates four factors that encourage diversity and equality in a curriculum:

The instruction of students from different backgrounds,
The study of ethnic and other cultural groups,
The development of critical thinking skills, and
A focus on human relations.

Teaching multicultural education requires thinking critically and examining why inequalities exist in the classrooms and schools, as some students are exposed to social justice issues regarding multicultural education. Students, families, educators, and governing boards all face challenges as they grapple with multicultural education (McFeeters, 2008).

Teaching multicultural education, including teachings around White privilege, requires thinking critically and examining why inequalities exist in the classrooms and schools. Helping students learn in diverse cultural settings and determining ways to build on different cultural backgrounds require good critical thinking skills. Teachers who think critically can challenge societal practices and philosophies like White privilege, which do not embrace democracy, equity, and social justice. They are not afraid to explore alternative views, question biases, and are open to multiple perspectives. In addition, they understand that questioning race, class, and gender inequities is vital to effective multicultural education (Johnson, Musial, Hall, Gollnick & Dupuis, 2004).

Applications

Teaching about White Privilege in the Classroom. Teachers who think critically can challenge various societal inequities are encouraged to teach about White privilege in the classroom. Education seems to be the primary way to address these issues and encourage White people to try to understand and acknowledge their complicity around White privilege and the harm it brings to those outside of the dominant group. The ways in which racism, oppression, structural inequity, and ignorance in general affect individuals and families should be included in curricula that teach students about cultural diversity in the United States. Though students can generally identify with and will acknowledge racism and acts of discrimination in society, they find it more difficult to see themselves as privileged (Goldstein, 2000; Swank, Asada & Lott, 2001).

Since the privilege phenomenon is generally lived and not necessarily seen (Feagin & Vera, 1995), teaching White students about White privilege can be a real challenge (Pence & Fields, 1999). Defensiveness, resistance, denial, anger, guilt, hostility, and outrage are all possible responses teachers might expect when teaching White students about privilege (Bohmer & Briggs, 1991; Iyer, Leach, & Crosby, 2003; Lucal, 1996; Swim & Miller, 1999).

For example, one study found that the resistance experienced by White female college students in one course was so significant that it distracted classroom dynamics and led to multiple office visits about the course content. This course was an upper-level social science course that included the study of White skin privilege. It was held on a middle-class predominantly White suburban campus in the Northwest, with two White female instructors. Classroom discussions involved students speaking up, for the most part, in opposition to what was being taught in the class. In addition, students gathered after class to complain about the course. When asked about their opposition, students explained that they felt guilt, anxiety, and even embarrassment as they recognized their privilege. To cope with these feelings, they tried to take on the "colorblind" position (Frankenberg, 1993; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Scholfield, 1997) and insist that race had nothing to do with the way minorities were being treated. Though it took some innovative methods for instructors to use to address the student's issues and concerns, they were able to eventually reengage them into the course material in a sensitive and careful manner (Gillespie, Ashbaugh & DeFiore, 2002).

Many researchers agree that the invisibility of White privilege is often the culprit that reinforces student resistance in these teachings (Gillespie, Ashbaugh & DeFiore, 2002). Because White is the norm in the United States and people of color are typically seen as deviating from the norm, White people are generally not fully aware of their relationship to power and privilege (Weiler, 1988). For this reason, more resistance is given to educators teaching about White privilege, more so than even teachings about racism (Frankenberg, 1997). Though resistance is likely to exist in classroom, encouraging White students to rethink their privilege through reflective writing exercises and focusing on how society might eliminate historical practices of various injustices will help them better understand that oppression and dominance are the key issues to address and, in some cases, even more so than race (Gillespie, Ashbaugh & DeFiore, 2002).

Teaching about White Privilege via Case Studies & Hands-On Activities. The use of case studies is one teaching method that has proven to be successful in teaching students about White privilege. When case studies are used, students can distance themselves from emotionally charged situations since the case involves someone else. This is helpful given the sensitivity of the topic. However, critics advise that case studies cannot replace personal experiences with White privilege and the emotions that come with those experiences (Gillespie, 2003).

Hands-on in-class activities have also proven to be effective methods for teaching students about White privilege. Lawrence (2000) used an activity in which he distributed unequal packets of materials to student groups and gave them the task of building mobiles. This exercise allowed the student group with a complete set of different and exciting materials to experience being in a situation of privilege where they had everything they needed to accomplish the goal. The other student group experienced that of an unprivileged group in which they did not have a variety of exciting and different pieces of materials to build their mobile. Again, though seemingly effective, this teaching method cannot fully replace a real-life experience with White privilege. Experts suggest combining these pedagogies with real-life occurrences for the greatest effects.

Teaching about White Privilege Using McIntosh's Exercise. Peggy McIntosh (1990) identified various daily aspects of White privilege in her life by choosing the conditions below, which she thought in her case, as a White woman, reflected skin-color privilege rather than religion, class, ethnic status, or geographic location. Readers may choose to assess their own privilege by responding to these questions as well.

I can, if I wish, arrange to be in the company of people of my race most of the time.
If I should need to move, I can be pretty sure of renting or purchasing housing in an area that I can afford and in which I would want to live.
I can be pretty sure that my neighbors in such a location will be neutral or pleasant to me.
I can go shopping alone most of the time, pretty well assured that I will not be followed or harassed.
I can turn on the television or open the front page of the paper and see people of my race widely represented.
When I am told about our national heritage or about "civilization," I am shown that people of my color made it what it is.
I can be sure that my children will be given curricular materials that testify to the existence of their race.
If I want to, I can be pretty sure of finding a publisher for this piece on White privilege.
I can go into a music shop and count on finding the music of my race represented, into a supermarket and find the staple foods that fit with my cultural traditions, into a hairdresser's shop and find someone who can deal with my hair.
Whether I use checks, credit cards, or cash, I can count on my skin color not to work against the appearance of financial reliability.
I can arrange to protect my children most of the time from people who might not like them.
I can swear, or dress in second-hand clothes, or not answer letters without having people attribute these choices to the bad morals, the poverty, or the illiteracy of my race.
I can speak in public to a powerful male group without putting my race on trial.
I can do well in a challenging situation without being called a credit to my race.
I am never asked to speak for all the people of my racial group.
I can remain oblivious to the language and customs of persons of color, who constitute the world's majority, without feeling in my culture any penalty for such oblivion.
I can criticize our government and talk about how much I fear its policies and behavior without being seen as a cultural outsider.
I can be pretty sure that if I ask to talk to "the person in charge" I will be facing a person of my race.
If a traffic cop pulls me over, or if the IRS audits my tax return, I can be sure I haven't been singled out because of my race.
I can easily buy posters, postcards, picture books, greeting cards, dolls, toys, and children's magazines featuring people of my race.
I can go home from most meetings of organizations I belong to feeling somewhat tied in rather than isolated, out of place, outnumbered, unheard, held at a distance, or feared.
I can take a job with an affirmative action employer without having coworkers on the job suspect that I got it because of race.
I can choose public accommodation without fearing that people of my race cannot get in or will be mistreated in the places I have chosen.
I can be sure that if I need legal or medical help my race will not work against me.
If my day, week, or year is going badly, I need not ask of each negative episode or situation whether it has racial overtones.
I can choose blemish cover or bandages in "flesh" color that more or less matches my skin (McIntosh, 1990, p. 31).

Terms & Concepts

Color-blindness: A refusal to see race or acknowledge White privilege. It is a self-imposed blindness that White people are taught, that instructs them to ignore race.

Discrimination: Treatment or consideration given based solely on socioeconomic class, race, or other category rather than based on individual merit.

Ignorance: The state of not knowing, including being uneducated, uninformed, or unaware.

In-group: A sociological term used to describe a group that people identify with and feel attached to. In many instances, the attachment is based on opposition toward "out-groups."

Multicultural Education: An educational approach that incorporates four factors that encourage diversity and equality into a curriculum: the instruction of students from different backgrounds, the study of ethnic and other cultural groups, the development of critical thinking skills, and a focus on human relations.

Oppression: The use of unjust force or authority to keep someone down or hold them back from something.

Out-group: A group of individuals in which members of an in-group harbor a sense of opposition, resistance, and even hatred toward. Out-groups are required for in-groups to exist.

Privilege: "An invisible package of unearned assets" that someone "can count on cashing in each day" (McIntosh, 2001, p. 95).

Racism: The belief that race alone determines human traits and abilities and that racial differences cause an inherent superiority of a particular race. Institutional racism refers to structural inequity based on race.

Structural Inequity Discriminatory bias embedded in societal institutions and policies.

White Complicity: Involves the unconscious negative beliefs and attitudes toward minorities and the idea that White people benefit from those group privileges of racism that, at the same time, marginalize people of color.

White Privilege: The differences in power between White people and people of color, including the advantages White people automatically take for granted.

Whitewashing: A process that denies race and, at the same time, promotes the White culture.

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White Privilege: The Invisible Advantages and Apparent Disadvantages

On this Page

Subject Terms

White Privilege: The Invisible Advantages and Apparent Disadvantages

Abstract

Overview

Further Insights

Applications

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading