Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)
The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) is a U.S. government agency established on March 11, 1824, originally under the Department of War, to centralize the administration of Indian affairs previously managed by various military and government officials. Its early responsibilities included managing funds for the "civilization" of Indigenous peoples, mediating disputes, and overseeing correspondence related to Indian affairs. Over the years, the BIA evolved significantly; in 1849, it was transferred to the Department of the Interior, leading to an expansion in its operations and staff. By the early 20th century, the BIA had grown to include thousands of employees and controlled a substantial budget, reflecting changing federal attitudes toward Native Americans.
Historically, the BIA has been criticized for its failure to adequately address the needs of Indigenous populations, particularly during the assimilationist policies of the 19th and early 20th centuries. However, reforms initiated during the tenure of Commissioner John Collier in the 1930s marked a shift towards revitalizing tribal governance and cultural practices. In subsequent decades, the BIA's influence waned as responsibility for Indian affairs increasingly shifted to Indigenous communities themselves, particularly following the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975. Despite this shift, the BIA continues to play a crucial role in various aspects of Native American life, including education, law enforcement, and economic development.
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)
Attempting to centralize Indian administration, previously controlled by a bewildering array of government and military officials, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun created the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) on March 11, 1824. Although authority over Indians initially resided in the Secretary of War, the fledgling bureau controlled all annuities and expenditures, managed funds for the "civilization" of Indians, mediated disputes between Indians under the trade and intercourse laws, and handled all correspondence. In 1832, the president was empowered to appoint a commissioner of Indian affairs.
In 1849, the BIA was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior. Thereafter authority descended from the president of the United States to the secretary of the interior to the commissioner of Indian affairs. The coordination of field superintendents, agents, missionaries, traders, and local Indians was entrusted to a field superintendent who corresponded directly with the commissioner. The BIA grew rapidly, from its original three members to six thousand employees in 1911. By the late twentieth century, it had thirteen thousand employees and controlled a budget of nearly $900 million.
Designed to implement federal policy, the BIA has historically reflected prevailing government attitudes toward Indians. Initially, it oversaw funding under the 1819 civilization plan designed to aid assimilation through education. Similarly, under the General Allotment Act of 1887, the BIA was charged with the mammoth task of preparing a list of members of tribes as well as classifying and appraising Indian lands.
After World War I, responding to government economizing mandates, the BIA decentralized its operations. Regional offices were superimposed over the existing administrative structure, and further reorganization in 1946 provided for separate geographical divisions with regional headquarters.
Surveys and studies during the 1920s, including the scathing Meriam Report, revealed the appalling conditions of Indian life under the allotment plan, thereby giving impetus to fresh reforms. Between 1933 and 1945, during Commissioner John Collier’s tenure, the BIA for the first time turned from its assimilationist policy. Because of Collier’s influence, the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of 1934 provided for a revitalization of tribal government and social customs. The act also granted Indians priority hiring within the BIA. Indeed, by 1982, Indians accounted for 78 percent of BIA personnel.
Since the 1960s, the BIAs influence over Indian affairs has eroded, thereby favoring a shift of responsibility to Indians themselves. In 1975, for example, the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act encouraged Indians to assume control over pertinent government programs. In the 1990s, dispersion of BIA activities to states, to other agencies, and to Indians continued, yet the bureau remained a vast organization supporting twelve regional offices and eighty-two agencies headed by a commissioner. The BIA still oversaw several features of Indian life, including education, law enforcement, and the mobilization of public and private funds for economic development and natural resource management.
Bibliography
Belko, William S. "John C. Calhoun and the Creation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs: An Essay on Political Rivalry, Ideology, and Policymaking in the Early Republic." South Carolina Historical Magazine 105.3 (2004): 170–97. Print.
Cahill, Cathleen D. Federal Fathers and Mothers: A Social History of the United States Indian Service, 1869–1933. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina P, 2011. Print.
Fixico, Donald L. Bureau of Indian Affairs. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2012. Print.