Head of state
A head of state is the highest-ranking official in a sovereign state, playing a critical role within various governmental frameworks such as republics, monarchies, and federations. The position is characterized by two essential traits: the head of state must attain their role through recognized legal and political processes, and they must be acknowledged internationally as a legitimate representative of their nation. The powers and responsibilities of heads of state can differ significantly; they may engage in domestic duties, represent their country abroad, and participate in treaty signings.
Globally, heads of state can range from powerful leaders in strong presidential systems to figureheads with limited authority in parliamentary systems or constitutional monarchies. In some nations, the head of state may also serve as the head of government, while in others, these roles are distinct. Additionally, the position can vary widely in terms of influence and personal status, influenced by cultural, political, and historical contexts. Notable exceptions include governments in exile during conflicts and the evolving recognition of entities without formal statehood, highlighting the complexity and adaptability of head of state roles in response to global changes.
Head of state
The head of state is the highest-ranking senior government official of a sovereign state. The definition is simple, but in practice, the head of state is a complicated phenomenon. No two are exactly alike, and many are very different.
At a minimum, every head of state shares two defining characteristics: they have entered that role in accordance with the legal and political procedures recognized as legitimate within that state. Also, they are recognized under international law and by the international community as a legitimate representative of that state. In addition to their domestic duties, the head of state may accredit foreign diplomats, attend international conferences and other events, and sign treaties and other agreements.
Brief Description and History
The head of state may be the highest-ranking official of their state, but many different arrangements and situations prevail among the states. The state itself may be a republic, federation, confederation, monarchy, empire, or commonwealth.
The head of state may also be the head of government, the person who actually holds power. In practice, the head of state can be anything from an absolute dictator—an unelected tyrant or ruling monarch and self-proclaimed president for life—to a totally powerless figurehead. That figurehead might be a hereditary monarch, a politician directly elected by the people, or appointed by the head of government or the national legislature. In some countries, mostly in Africa and the Middle East, law, tradition, and political expediency may require that the head of state and the head of government be of different religions or from different ethnic or tribal groups.
Some countries do without a formal head of state entirely. Also, the personal status of the head of state, especially those without real power, may vary tremendously. Some might be elevated to the job as a reward for previous service. Others are expected in some mystical way to embody the spirit of their countries. Some exert significant personal influence. Few dare to provoke controversy.
Clearly, it is impossible to generalize, and political scientists and historians prefer to concentrate on specific cases and their similarities and differences. However, there are a few commonly recognized types. The CIA’s World Factbook offers a detailed, country-by-country directory of governmental types and situations. A few examples with historical data are offered below.
Pure Presidential System
The United States has no formal head of state; the Constitution never uses the term. Neither does "Head of Government" appear. The president, the chief executive, fills the roles of both, although the vice president may assume many of his more ceremonial duties. A breach of protocol, but few foreign governments seem to complain.
Strong Presidential System
In this arrangement, the presidential head of government, directly elected by the people, also serves as formal head of state. They appoint the prime minister or chancellor, usually with the consent of the legislature. Power balances and divisions of labor vary from country to country.
Below are two examples of this system: one a total failure, the other a significant success. Both arose in response to domestic chaos; both made the head of state a powerful figure. Both wanted the president to have iconic stature.
After Germany’s defeat in World War I and the Hohenzollern abdication, Germany’s provisional government drafted the Weimar Constitution, giving the president sweeping powers: they could name the chancellor (head of government), dismiss the Reichstag (legislature), and in emergencies, rule by decree. President Paul von Hindenburg did exactly that and, in March 1933, appointed Adolf Hitler chancellor.
The constitution of the French Fifth Republic was custom tailored for Charles de Gaulle. The president appoints the prime minister, who must nonetheless be approved by the National Assembly. The two have sometimes been of different parties. The president enjoys primacy in foreign affairs; the prime minister tends more to domestic matters.
Parliamentary System
This is perhaps the most common arrangement. The legislature elects the prime minister, usually a member of the dominant party, who then names the head of state, usually with legislative approval. One exception comes when the head of state is a hereditary monarch, such as in Great Britain and the European countries that retain monarchies. Some are pure symbols; others still possess certain limited independent powers that they rarely exercise.
Other exceptions express specific arrangements. In Israel, the Knesset (legislature) elects the president, usually the prime minister’s preferred candidate, by secret ballot. The president has one significant political power. In national elections, voters choose a single party; seats in the Knesset are apportioned among qualifying parties by percentage. The president then chooses the party leader whom they believe to have the best chance of forming a coalition.
Head of State Today
The head-of-state system functions within a stable world of sovereign states. However, there are two exceptions: one traditional and one perhaps evolving. Given global turmoil, these may prove important.
The first exception is a government in exile and applies in times of war or revolution. A state may be occupied by an enemy and its government forced to flee. During World War II, the governments of several countries conquered by the Nazis continued to be recognized by the Allies as legitimate, even though they could not perform their normal duties.
Another in-exile situation involves governments that have been toppled by revolution. There may never have been a full de jure, legal recognition of a deposed government in exile, but many have certainly enjoyed de facto privileges, at least for a while. Most have been monarchic dynasties: the Bourbon during and after the French Revolution and Napoleon, members of the Romanov family after the Russian Revolution. The second exception that is perhaps evolving is recognition of governments that have never been sovereign states, such as the Palestinian Authority.
In sum, the head of state is a complex part of a sovereign-state system that now faces long-term global challenges. As that system evolves, nations may change their arrangements in many ways.
Bibliography
"Executive Branch." The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/executive-branch. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
Fenby, Jonathan. The General: Charles de Gaulle and the France He Saved. Skyhorse Publications, 2012.
Judge, David. Political Institutions in the United Kingdom. Oxford UP, 2005.
Lacouture, Jean. De Gaulle: The Ruler 1945-1970. Norton, 1992.
Lutz, Ellen, and Caitlin Reiger. Prosecuting Heads of State. Cambridge UP, 2009.
Nichols, Thomas. The Russian Presidency: Society and Politics in the Second Russian Republic. Palgrave Macmillan, 1999.
Roberts, Ivor, and Ernest Mason Satow. Satow’s Diplomatic Practice. 7th ed., Oxford UP, 2017.
Schmidt, Manfred. Political Institutions in the Federal Republic of Germany. Oxford UP, 2003.
Skach, Cindy. Borrowing Constitutional Designs: Constitutional Law in Weimar Germany and the French Fifth Republic. Princeton UP, 2005.
Watts, Sir Arthur. "Heads of State." Max Planck Encyclopedia of International Law. Oxford UP. 2010.