History of Censorship in Iraq
The history of censorship in Iraq is marked by a series of restrictive measures that have evolved under various regimes, particularly during the rule of the Ba'ath Party from 1963 onward. The provisional constitution established in 1968 included provisions for press freedom, but these were heavily qualified, allowing the government to suppress any criticism of the state, its agencies, or its economy. Under Saddam Hussein, who rose to power in 1979, the media was required to promote the Ba'ath Party's ideology, and strict controls were enforced on both domestic and foreign news outlets. The government actively monitored and restricted artistic and literary expression, leading to imprisonment and persecution of those who opposed the regime's narratives. Even after the US invasion in 2003, Iraq's penal code reverted to earlier restrictions, maintaining severe penalties for perceived dissent. A new constitution adopted in 2005 nominally granted freedom of expression, yet it still allowed for censorship under the guise of maintaining public order. By 2014, the Iraqi government was blocking critical media and social media platforms, citing security concerns amid ongoing threats from extremist groups. This history illustrates a complex interplay between state power and the suppression of dissenting voices within Iraqi society.
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History of Censorship in Iraq
Description: Oil-rich Middle Eastern country that occupies most of what was once Mesopotamia
Significance: Under the authority of a single party Iraq has tightly controlled press and other communication media
The control of Iraq fell under the dictates of the Ba’ath Party in 1963 and followed the dictates of a provisional constitution established in 1968. For brief periods sanctions were lifted, as when Kurdish and communist parties were allowed to form in the 1970’s, only to be suppressed again in 1978. Although President Saddam Hussein—who came to power in 1979— authorized other parties to exist in 1991, the country basically remained a one-party state. Hussein himself held positions of chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, prime minister, and commander of the armed forces.
An article of the provisional constitution of 1968 called for freedom of the press, but with the qualification that publications must be inside “the limits of the law.” A press code promulgated that same year prohibited publication of adverse remarks about the government, its agencies, or Iraq’s economy. Praise for President Hussein and condemnation of his enemies—particularly Iran—later became an instrumental part of the news coverage. In 1981 Iraq’s Ministry of Culture and Information Act required all news media to deliver, to promote, and to support the ruling Ba’ath Party’s ideology. Foreign news reporters, who had been banned from 1970 to 1981, were again allowed to publish, but with government approval and editing. Government officials accompanied reporters on their assignments and during their news transmissions. All equipment had to be registered and licensed. While the Ministry of Guidance screened printed materials, the Ministry of Culture and Information possessed the authority to suppress all media who did not adhere to the standards of the government.
A 1973 law banned imported films. In 1980 a government-controlled body called the General Federation of the Literate and Writers superseded all other Iraqi cultural and literary organizations, and required all writers and artists to join it. Those who refused to join who had been in their professions longer than fifteen years had to repay the government for their educational costs. Those who resisted the new regulations were jailed and sometimes tortured or killed. Under these new rules four hundred persons fled the country.
In order to ensure loyalty throughout the country, party members were kept under watch by the Amn al-Hizb (Party Security), Amn al-Amm (State Internal Security), Estikhbarat (Military Intelligence), and Mukhabarat (Party Intelligence). The national penal code set the death penalty for Ba’ath Party members who joined other political parties. Those suspected of opposing the government were executed; especially targeted were members of the outlawed Da’wa Party.
By 1988 only six daily national newspapers remained in the country; all of them were published in the national capital, Baghdad. Other media outlets were also based in Baghdad such as radio which reached 2.5 million listeners and Baghdad Television, which aired government-supplied news on two channels. Imprisonment, confiscation of property, and death could be inflicted upon those who did not adhere to the censorship regulations.
A new constitution was instituted in 1990 with provisions allowing the Revolutionary Command Council to prohibit anything that might harm "national unity," "the objectives of the people," or the Iraqi people's "achievements." Changes were also made to the penal code, but after the US invasion of Iraq in 2003, the country reverted to the penal code of 1988. The penal code has provisions for punishing anyone who obtains or makes a picture, sign, or other written material which "endangers the public security or brings the country into disrepute," as well as those who create or buy books, pictures, films, and other materials that "violate the public integrity or decency" and those who perform or broadcast "obscene or indecent songs or statements." In 2005 a new constitution was adopted which guaranteed freedom of expression, assembly, and the press, but only to the extent that these did not "violate public order and morality." As of 2014 the government was blocking websites that were critical of it, including major Middle Eastern news outlets Al-Jazeera and Al-Arabiya. Iraq also began restricting access to social media, allegedly to prevent the terrorist group known as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) from using it to organize.
Bibliography
Al-Rawi, Ahmed K. Media Practice in Iraq. New York: Palgrave, 2012. Print.
Dawisha, Adeed. Iraq: A Political History. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2009. Print.
Franceschi-Bicchierai, Lorenzo. "Iraq Now Censoring Websites Critical of Government." Mashable. Mashable, 24 June 2014. Web. 23 Nov. 2015.
Timberg, Craig. "Iraq Tries to Censor Social Media to Disrupt ISIS Communication, but Its Success Is Limited." Washington Post. Washington Post, 13 June 2014. Web. 23 Nov. 2015.