Military government

In a military government, a military force establishes its authority over a population or region in place of a previously established government. An exact definition of a military government is difficult to come by, with some viewing it solely as an outside force occupying foreign territory and others allowing for internal military rule after a military coup. According to the definition from the United States Department of Defense, a military government can be established by force or through agreement with an occupied territory. The region governed can be part of the military’s home territory, an allied territory, a neutral territory, or an enemy territory. A military government is typically installed when the previous government has proven itself unable or unwilling to function effectively or enforce the legitimate rule of law.

Background

In many ancient civilizations, the line between civilian and military government was blurred. For example, the early city-states of Mesopotamia battled both outside forces and each other for control of the region. Mesopotamian rulers raised armies from among their subjects, but these soldiers could only fight for limited periods. For most of the year, they were needed to work as farmers and maintain a stable food supply. Historians believe the first permanent army of professional soldiers was established about 2300 BCE by Sargon, the first ruler of the Akkadian Empire. Ancient rulers relied on their militaries not only to defend their kingdoms but also to protect against internal rebellions. A ruler who lost the support of his armies could soon find himself challenged by the same forces he once commanded.

In Ancient Greece, the city-state of Sparta put great emphasis on warfare, with all male citizens required to devote themselves to rigorous military training. While Sparta was ruled by a citizen assembly and a pair of kings, the kings were also warriors and often led the Spartan armies on military campaigns. The armies of ancient Rome were also a very strong force, both militarily and politically. In the early days of Rome, the republic was ruled by two officials, known as counsels, who acted as heads of both the political and military arms of the government. In times of political unrest or national emergency, the republic would appoint one person to act as dictator. A dictator had the ultimate authority to make decisions, but his time in power was limited to six months. In 49 BCE, Roman general Julius Caesar seized power with the backing of his armies and later declared himself dictator for life. After his assassination in 44 BCE, the office of dictator was abolished.

Near the beginning of the nineteenth century, a revolution of thought spread across Europe, leading to the rise of democratic governments and a separation between military and civilian authority. In these first modern-style democracies, professional militaries were placed under the authority of democratically elected leaders. On occasion, military leaders did rise to power in Europe, such as when French general Napoleon Bonaparte seized control of France in 1799. Bonaparte later named himself emperor and is considered by some to be the first modern military dictator. However, most nations, even authoritarian regimes in which the military was used to suppress opposition, were governed by civilian leaders.

Overview

Modern military governments are defined differently depending on the source. In one common viewpoint, a military government is established by a member of a military command to administer to a conquered territory. The government may be established at the discretion of the victorious army, or military involvement may be requested by the conquered territory as a means of keeping the peace. The decrees issued by a military government take precedence over any previously existing local laws.

An example of this type of military government occurred in Germany in the wake of World War II (1939–1945). With the death of Adolf Hitler and the fall of the Nazi government, the victorious Allies divided Germany under the terms of a joint occupation agreement. Forces from the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and France each assumed the responsibilities of governing a section of the nation and its capital, Berlin. Each of the four zones had its own military governor to oversee their designated region. In its weakened state, Germany and its people relied on the Allied forces to provide security, food, and other essential goods.

However, rising tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States resulted in the eventual division of Germany along ideological lines. In 1949, the nation was split into West Germany and East Germany. West Germany became a sovereign state aligned with the United States, Great Britain, and other democratic Western powers. The Soviets also turned East Germany over to civilian authorities but established a communist government with strong ties to the Soviet Union. With the establishment of the two Germanys, the Allies’ military government ended, but both the United States and the Soviets maintained a troop presence in the nations for decades afterward.

Most definitions of military government also make a distinction between a government established by occupying forces and the instillation of martial law. Martial law occurs when civilian government operations are temporarily suspended and replaced with a military authority. This typically happens only during times of national emergency or internal revolt. In most cases, martial law can only be declared by a sitting civilian leader and its uses are limited by existing law. The military leaders are tasked with temporarily administering national laws and are not granted the authority to govern independently.

While military governments are often established to fill a power vacuum after a nation is defeated in war, a different type of military government began emerging in the latter half of the twentieth century. On several occasions, forces within a national military have seized power in a developing country, replacing that nation’s leader with a military official. This transition can occur through the means of a national election or as a result of a coup d’état, a sudden, often violent, overthrow of an established government. A military-led coup does not necessarily result in a military government. The coup planners can choose a civilian replacement for the ousted leader, which would entail a transition from one civilian government to the next. In some cases, the new leader may have strong ties to the military, making it difficult to classify the government as strictly civilian.

Military governments that arise as the result of a coup typically take two forms. If the military leaders of the coup prefer to act as an arbiter towards a new government, they will establish parameters for their rule. This includes setting a time frame for them to relinquish control, usually after an acceptable political solution has been found. They also express a desire for a civilian government and a return to the existing rule of law.

Other military coup leaders are not interested in giving up control and wish to assume power directly from the ousted leader. In these cases, the military officials often argue that military rule is necessary to maintain political order. They may be affiliated with a political party opposite to the one they removed and may seek drastic changes in the nation’s laws. These types of military governments also have little fear of citizen dissent and may implement harsh measures to maintain control.

The latter type of military government is often under the control of a military dictator. The dictator can be the military officer who led the coup or may be appointed by coup leaders after they have successfully seized power. In some cases, the government can be ruled by a committee of military officers, known as a junta. During the Cold War period of the mid- to late-twentieth century, military coups and military dictatorships were common throughout Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East. Most were an offshoot of the ongoing conflict between the capitalist-driven United States and the communist Soviet Union. By the twenty-first century, the majority of these military governments had been replaced with democratically elected civilian governments.

Several military dictatorships did persist into the twenty-first century, with possibly the most notable being the government of Libyan President Muammar Gaddafi. Gaddafi was a colonel who led a military coup against the country’s king in 1969. He assumed power in the northern African nation and ruled for more than forty years until he was overthrown and executed in 2011. In April 2019, President Omar al-Bashir of the African nation of Sudan was overthrown in a military coup and replaced by a transitional military government. Al-Bashir, who had grabbed power in his own military coup in 1989, had been repeatedly accused of ordering atrocities against civilians in the Darfur region of western Sudan. The transitional Sudanese government consisted of a military council that took over after al-Bashir’s ouster. The council was at first reluctant to give up power but later agreed to a three-year transitional period that would result in civilian rule. Still, following another coup in 2021, the transitional government of Sudan was dissolved, and civil war once again broke out in the region. This conflict continued through the mid-2020s.

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