U.S. State-Federal relations
U.S. State-Federal relations refer to the complex interplay between the national government and individual state governments in the United States, grounded in the federalist system established by the Constitution. This system aims to distribute power between the larger federal government and the smaller state governments, allowing for a degree of autonomy at the state level while ensuring that federal laws are upheld. The Constitution delineates specific powers for the federal government and reserves others for the states, with the Tenth Amendment affirming that any powers not explicitly granted to the federal government are retained by the states or the people.
Over the years, the balance of power in this relationship has shifted in response to political changes and judicial interpretations, such as the landmark Supreme Court case McCulloch v. Maryland, which expanded federal authority through the "elastic clause." Historical events, like the Civil War and the Great Depression, have further influenced these dynamics, prompting debates over states’ rights versus federal oversight. In contemporary discussions, Americans continue to navigate the complexities of this relationship, often questioning the extent of federal power compared to state sovereignty. This ongoing dialogue reflects the diverse perspectives and cultural sensitivities inherent in governance across the nation.
U.S. State-Federal relations
U.S. state-federal relations is the relationship between the federal, or national, government of the United States and the individual state governments that comprise it. When drafting the Constitution, the Founding Fathers established a system of government called federalism, which further defines this relationship. Federalism's goal is to balance power among various levels of government that control the same territory.
In the United States, the federalist system attempts to balance power between the larger national government and the smaller state governments. The federal government may enact laws based only on very specific powers enumerated, or listed, in the Constitution. Although the states must follow federal laws, they also are able to make their own laws and maintain some autonomy, or the ability to self-govern.
Overview of U.S. State-Federal Relations
On July 4, 1776, delegates from the thirteen colonies approved the Declaration of Independence, which established the United States of America as an independent nation free from British rule. In the years that followed, and in the midst of the Revolutionary War, the new country worked to establish guidelines for a new government. The result was the Articles of Confederation, which granted most powers to the states and created a weak central government. In just a few years, however, it became clear that a stronger central government was necessary, and delegates arranged a convention that ultimately produced the Constitution in 1787.
The Founding Fathers based the Constitution on the idea of federalism. Having recently emerged from a war against an almighty government in which they lacked representation (Britain), the Founding Fathers wanted to ensure that no government or branch of government created by the Constitution could become too powerful. To address this concern, they crafted a system of checks and balances among the three branches of government—legislative, executive, and judicial—and a division of powers between the federal government and the state governments. Several sections of the Constitution help to define federal and state powers and further establish federal-state relations.
Federal and State Powers
The Constitution specifically identifies powers reserved for the federal government. Article I, Section 8, for example, grants the federal government the power to
- borrow money on the credit of the United States;
- coin money and regulate its value;
- provide for the punishment of counterfeiting money;
- establish post offices;
- punish piracy committed on the high seas;
- raise and support armies; and
- make all laws "necessary and proper" for executing the powers listed in the Constitution.
These federal powers are by no means an exhaustive list; the important thing to remember, however, is that the federal government cannot take any actions that fall outside the powers listed in the Constitution.
The Constitution also identifies powers belonging to the states. While Article I, Section 10 places certain prohibitions on state powers, the Tenth Amendment in the Bill of Rights guarantees, "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." In other words, state powers include all those that the Constitution does not specifically assign to the federal government or specifically ban for the states.
A Shifting Balance of Power
Over time, the balance of power in U.S. state-federal relations has swung like a pendulum, usually in response to judicial decisions or the political climate. For example, the Supreme Court expanded federal power in its decision in McCulloch v. Maryland in 1819. After Congress established a bank in Maryland, the state of Maryland challenged whether Congress had the constitutional authority to do so. In the decision, Chief Justice John Marshall noted that the Constitution implies that Congress has the right to establish a bank under the "elastic clause," which allows Congress to enact all laws "necessary and proper" for executing the powers reserved to it by the Constitution. The elastic clause has since been cited numerous times to support various federal actions.
In the mid-nineteenth century, the issue of states' rights became a key factor in the onset of the Civil War, especially with regard to slavery. The Southern economy rested on agriculture, and enslaved people were necessary for much of the work on plantations. Without labor by enslaved people, Southerners feared their economy would collapse. As a result, they saw federal laws that attempted to prohibit the spread of slavery as an attack on their very survival. In the 1850s, some Southern states began to discuss secession, or withdrawal, arguing that individual states had the power to withdraw from the United States just as they had had the power to join it in the first place. When eleven Southern states eventually seceded, they exercised what they believed were rights and powers reserved for the states.
The 1930s saw rapid growth in federal government power. The United States suffered in the midst of the Great Depression, and President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Congress crafted the "New Deal," which created a number of programs intended to help the American people by improving the economy. The New Deal also extended the government's reach into many sectors of American life and greatly broadened its power. A similar period of growth in federal government power occurred during the 1960s under President Lyndon Johnson's plan for a "Great Society." Later, presidents such as Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan attempted to reign in federal government growth and relinquish some power to the states.
Each time the balance of power between the federal government and the states shifts, it further defines federal-state relations. The American people continue to debate how much power the federal government should have and which powers should belong to the states.
Bibliography
"The Bill of Rights." National Archives, U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, 21 Apr. 2023, www.archives.gov/founding-docs/bill-of-rights. Accessed 9 Jan. 2025.
"The Constitution of the United States." National Archives, U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, 21 Sept. 2022, www.archives.gov/founding-docs/constitution. Accessed 9 Jan. 2025.
"Federalism." Law Information Institute, Cornell University Law School, www.law.cornell.edu/wex/federalism. Accessed 9 Jan. 2025.
Grulke, Eric, and David C. Nice. "Federal-State Relations." The Center for the Study of Federalism, federalism.org/encyclopedia/no-topic/federal-state-relations. Accessed 9 Jan. 2025.
Jackson, Vicki C. "Federalism." Encyclopedia of the American Constitution, edited by Leonard W. Levy and Kenneth L. Karst, 2nd ed., vol. 3., Macmillan Reference USA, 2000, pp. 989–94.
"McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)." Our Documents, 10 May 2022, www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/mcculloch-v-maryland. Accessed 9 Jan. 2025.