Behavioral Foundations of Leadership

The Behavioral Foundations of Leadership focuses on understanding human behavior in the workplace to effectively lead and motivate employees. Central to this concept is the idea that leadership is a process, requiring intentional actions that influence others toward achieving organizational goals. Successful leadership can be characterized by three different approaches: task orientation, interaction orientation, and self-orientation, each reflecting different priorities in how leaders engage with their teams. Effective leaders often adapt their styles based on situational variables, such as the needs and abilities of their followers.

The leadership styles can vary from coercive, where power is the primary tool, to persuasive, where ability and expertise guide influence. A leader’s effectiveness is often perceived through the changes they inspire in their team members' behavior and the rewards associated with meeting organizational objectives. Additionally, motivation plays a crucial role; understanding what drives employees—whether it be financial incentives, recognition, or personal fulfillment—is essential for promoting high performance. The application of theories such as Maslow's hierarchy of needs further aids leaders in recognizing and addressing the diverse motivations of their team members to foster a productive work environment.

Published in: 2021

By: Wienclaw, Ruth A.

Subject Terms

Behavioral Foundations of Leadership

Management is the process of efficiently and effectively accomplishing work through the coordination and supervision of others. To do this effectively requires an understanding of human behavior in the workplace; in particular, how to lead employees, motivate them to do what needs to be done, and provide an environment that facilitates them in achieving team and organizational objectives. Regardless of one's theoretical approach to leadership, certain practical behaviors have been found to characterize successful leaders. In addition, good management depends not only on understanding the behavior of the manager but also on understanding the behavior of the subordinate. Managers need to be able to motivate their employees to contribute to the success of the organization.

Although there are many aspects to management, including administration, decision making, and supervising, at its heart, management is the process of efficiently and effectively accomplishing work through the coordination and supervision of others. To do this effectively requires an understanding of human behavior in the workplace -- in particular, how to lead employees, motivate them to do what needs to be done, and provide an environment that facilitates them in achieving team and organizational objectives. Leadership is not a characteristic or quality that automatically induces other people to follow the leader. It is a process: a series of actions, changes, or functions that bring about the desired result. Leadership is also an intentional act. Although leaders' behavior may inspire others to action or to follow in their footsteps, they are not leaders unless they are conscious of the attempt to modify the behavior of others.

Levels of Leadership

As shown in Figure 1, there are three levels of leadership.

Attempted Leadership

The first level is attempted leadership, where Harvey attempts to modify the behavior of other people in order to do what he wants them to do. This can be done with one of three orientations.

Task orientation is an approach to leadership where the would-be leader focuses on the thing to be done (such as meeting a quarterly sales goal, designing a new widget, or producing gizmos with fewer defects). People who have a task orientation to leadership tend to be good managers or executives and focus on organizational goals.
The interaction orientation to leadership is one in which the would-be leader is cognizant of the needs, abilities, and personalities of the followers. The primary goal of the interaction oriented leader is to maintain group harmony. This is an important orientation for group leadership and necessary for facilitating efficient group interactions. In fact, in many group situations, there are two de facto leaders: One who is task oriented and one who is interaction oriented.
In addition, there is a third approach to attempted leadership -- the self orientation. The person who attempts to lead by this approach tends to be a day dreamer or underachiever who sees the world as a stage on which to act. Self-oriented leaders think more about themselves than about the task at hand or about the people who are accomplishing that task.

Successful/Effective Leadership

If the people whom Harvey is trying to influence actually change their behavior as a result of his attempt at leadership, he is a successful leader. If, on the other hand, they do not change their behavior as a result of his efforts, Harvey's attempts at leadership have not been successful.

Styles of Leadership

There are three general styles of leadership that are based on some combination of power and ability. Without one or both of these characteristics, the attempted leadership will not be successful.

The coercive leadership style is based strictly on power. Within the organization, this is typically organizational power (such as one's position as a supervisor or manager), but it can also be any other type of power to reward or hurt the followers. This style of leadership is frequently seen in organizations with supervisors or managers who invite neither discussion nor participation on the part of the employees but use their organizational standing and concomitant power (e.g., promote or fire; give or withhold raises) to get employees to do what they want them to do.
On the other end of the spectrum is the persuasive leader who leads purely on ability. This type of leader can be seen in organizations in the form of the expert on a work team who is followed because of his or her level of technical expertise, ability to organize and facilitate work, or other skill. Strictly persuasive leaders do not have any power and must lead solely by their ability.
Some leaders, however, use both power and ability to lead others using a permissive style of leadership. People using this type of leadership style use both their power and ability to bring about the desired actions of the part of their followers. For example, many persuasive leaders within organizations use their abilities to lead their followers in most circumstances and rely on brute use of organizational power only in extreme circumstances.

A leader can be said to be effective if his or her efforts bring about a change in the behavior of others and they do what the leader wanted them to do. This, however, does not necessarily mean that the leader was effective. The effectiveness of Harvey's leadership lies in the perceptions of those he was leading, specifically whether or not they were rewarded for following Harvey. Reward can be monetary or social -- such as a bonus or praise -- but it can also take more subtle forms, such as getting the task accomplished on time and within budget. Those who have been effective leaders in the past will typically attempt to lead in other situations in the future.

Traits & Behaviors Common to Successful Leaders

Leadership theorists have examined the traits and behaviors of successful leaders for decades in order to help determine what distinguishes an effective leader from one who is not. Although many theories have been posited over the years, one enduring theme is that leaders need to change their behaviors depending on the characteristics of the situation such as the motivation and abilities of the people that they are leading. In some situations, a good leader needs to focus on concern for the task, while in other situations a good leader needs to focus on having concern for people. For example, a leader may be both successful and effective with a hands-off approach in a situation in which the people who are being led are experienced and trained in the task that they need to perform. In such situations, a good leader is often well-advised to provide the environment that the employees need to do their job and to support them rather than actively trying to be "in charge." On the other hand, in a situation where the leader has knowledge and experience not possessed by the followers, he or she may have to be more directive as a leader in order to get the task accomplished. In the situational approach to leadership, theorists state that effective leaders change the style of their leadership depending on the ability and even the personality of the people they are trying to lead. Similarly, the contingency model of leadership suggests that effective leadership depends on whether or not the leader's style is appropriate to the situation. For example, a leader who prefers to wade into a situation and tell people what to do will not be successful in a situation where a team works best through synergy, piggybacking ideas off each other, and developing a product or idea greater than they could have done alone.

No matter one's theoretical approach to leadership, certain practical behaviors have been found to characterize successful leaders.

First, successful leaders tend to be fair and objective in their evaluation of the work of others. Organizational rewards such as promotions, raises, and bonuses are often linked to performance in high performing companies, so it is essential that performance appraisals be fair.
Second, it is also important that a leader treat all employees fairly and equally. Lack of fair treatment or perceptions of favoritism can lead to job dissatisfaction among employees.
Third, good leaders need to be available to all the employees and be willing to discuss the employees' problems with them. This observation stems from the need to be concerned both with the task as well as with the interactions of a work group and the individual needs of the employees.
Finally, good leaders tend to delegate responsibility as appropriate to their subordinates. This allows the employees to learn new skills, helps them prepare for even more responsibility, and lets them feel as if they are making a valued contribution to the organization.

Applications

Understanding the Employee

Good management depends not only on understanding the behavior of the manager but also on understanding the behavior of the subordinate. In addition to good leadership skills, managers need to be able to motivate their employees to contribute to the success of the organization. Too much emphasis on the task at hand and not enough concern with the needs of the individual employee can easily result in a situation in which the employees are dissatisfied and do not contribute to helping the organization maximize its performance. Too much emphasis on the needs of the individual without concern for the task, on the other hand, may end with employees who are satisfied with their jobs but still do not contribute to helping the organization maximize its performance.

One of the ways that a manager can help reach the proper balance between these two extremes is through an understanding of motivation theory and application in the work place. Motivation is the study of the needs and thought processes that determine a person's behavior. By understanding what motivates employees, a manager can better reward them for behavior that contributes to achieving the objectives of the organization. For example, a worker who is motivated by money can often be motivated through the possibility of raises or bonuses. For an employee who is motivated by status or power, the possibility of a promotion or corner office may offer a greater incentive for desired behavior.

Motivation

Although part of the role of the manager is to clearly specify what kind of behavior is expected in the organization and to encourage employees to meet or exceed these standards by providing feedback, most employees need more from the organization than to know that they are helping it succeed. To motivate employees to perform at a consistently high level, the organization must give them what they want or need. Good managers tend to try to determine what motivates their employees and offer these things within the confines of the organization in order to encourage them to contribute to the success of the organization. High performing organizations in particular frequently motivate employees to contribute to the company's high performance by linking desired performance to rewards.

Different people are motivated by different things. While Harvey may want security to save for the future, Mathilde may have what she needs for a secure future and want, instead, more time to spend with her family. Harvey is more likely to be motivated to work to earn more money, whereas Mathilde is more likely to work if she is promised more time off. Some motivation theorists try to reduce motivation to an equation that connects the probability of increased performance with such things as the employee's perceived expectancy of obtaining a reward for doing so. Others, however, posit that different people are motivated by different things, from having one's physical needs met (e.g., food on the table and a roof over one's head) to having the esteem of others or some other internal incentive. However, most motivation theorists recognize that people working in organizations both need and expect remuneration. Money means different things to different people and can act as a motivator for various needs. For example, some people are motivated by money to meet basic physical needs or to have the security of knowing that those needs will continue to be met for the foreseeable future. Others see pay incentives in the form of bonuses, raises, or promotions as recognition from the organization for a job well done.

The Hierarchy of Needs

One of the most enduring theories of motivation that has been applied to the understanding of employee behavior is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Figure 2). Maslow hypothesizes that people are motivated by different things at different times in their lives depending on what needs have or have not been met. The hierarchy also hypothesizes that needs lower on the hierarchy must have been satisfied before higher level needs can be satisfied.

Physiological Needs

According to Maslow, the most basic level of needs is the physiological needs, including the needs to satisfy hunger and thirst, sleep, and sex. From an employee motivation point of view, this means that a manager is unlikely to motivate an employee who cannot put food on the table by offering him or her the possibility of a promotion without a pay raise; the need to eat in this case is more important than the need to impress others with a fancy new title.

Safety Needs

Once the physiological level of needs has been met, people become more concerned with safety needs, including the need to feel safe, secure, and stable in life (e.g., having a job so that one not only has food for today but also can buy food for the foreseeable future). People who are at this level of Maslow's hierarchy want to feel that their world is organized and predictable. From an employee motivation point of view, this might mean that people at this level of need would be willing to work without a raise for a given period of time if they were assured that there would not be a layoff during that period.

Belongingness Needs

Once the security and safety needs of the individual are satisfied, the next level of needs is for belongingness. People at this level of need are motivated by such factors as the need to feel accepted and part of a group, to love or feel affection and be loved in return, and to avoid loneliness and alienation. Someone at this level of need may be motivated by being given the opportunity to work on a special team to solve an organizational problem, thus allowing him or her to feel part of a group.

Esteem Needs

The next level of needs in Maslow's hierarchy is the esteem needs, including such things as the need to achieve, be competent, and be independent. Other needs at this level of the hierarchy include the needs for self-respect and a sense of self-worth as well as the need for recognition and respect from others. From an employee motivation point of view, someone at this level of need might be motivated by the offer to be part of a special team not because it was an opportunity to be part of a group but because it was a respected position that showed his or her importance or expertise.

Self-Actualization

The final level on Maslow's hierarchy of needs is self-actualization. This is a complex concept that basically means the need to live up to one's full and unique potential and is associated with such concepts as wholeness, perfection, or completion; a divestiture of "things" in preference to simplicity, aliveness, goodness, and beauty; and a search for meaning in life. Employees at this level in the hierarchy would be less interested in the things that motivated at lower levels on the hierarchy unless they enabled them to reach other goals, such as learning, spiritual development, or enjoying the wonders of nature.

Other Points of Interest

In addition to the fact that different people are motivated by different things, there are several other things that can be learned from Maslow's hierarchy of needs that have direct application to good management.

First, employees can move not only up the hierarchy, but down as well. For example, although most adults are not worried about the safety and security needs (i.e., they have a regular paycheck and live in a safe neighborhood), the situation can change. An accident or ailing parent may mean that more income is needed. A divorce or change in a family situation may mean that one's esteem needs a boost.
Further, in addition to moving up and down the hierarchy, people can experience multiple needs at once. For example, in negotiating a strike settlement, a manager will understand that although the workers need more money, they also need to have the assurance that they will continue to have jobs. Sometimes settlements can be negotiated that take such considerations into account by giving a token or low level raise in the short term for the security of a continuing job with the promise of reevaluation of the situation after a given period of time.

Conclusion

To be a good manager requires an understanding of organizational behavior. In particular, it is important to understand the behaviors necessary to be a good leader and how these behaviors may change depending on the individual situation. In addition, good managers need to understand the motivations for the behavior of their subordinates so that appropriate rewards can be tied with performance that contributes to the objectives of the organization.

Terms & Concepts

Hierarchy of Needs: A theory of motivation developed by Abraham Maslow. According to Maslow, there are five levels of need: physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. The theory posits that people's behavior is motivated by where they are in the hierarchy. People can move up and down the hierarchy and can also experience needs from several levels at once.

High Performing Organization: Businesses that consistently out-perform their competitors.

Leadership: The process of intentionally influencing others and providing an environment that facilitates them in the achievement of team and organizational objectives.

Leadership Style: The way in which a leader supervises his/her employees. Different leadership styles (e.g., coercive, permissive, persuasive) are appropriate depending on the ability and needs of the workers, the situation in which they are working, and the personality of the leader.

Management: The process of efficiently and effectively accomplishing work through the coordination and supervision of others.

Motivation: An internal process that gives direction to, energizes, and sustains an organism's behavior. Motivation can be internal (e.g., I am hungry so I eat lunch) or external (e.g., the advertisement for the ice cream cone is attractive so I buy one).

Need: A condition in which an organism experiences the deprivation of something necessary for physiological or psychological fulfillment.

Performance Appraisal: The process of evaluating an employee's work performance and providing feedback on how well he or she is doing (typically against some standard of performance for that job).

Self-Actualization: The need to live up to one's full and unique potential. Associated with self-actualization are such concepts as wholeness, perfection, or completion; a divestiture of "things" in preference to simplicity, aliveness, goodness, and beauty; and a search for meaning in life. In Maslow's hierarchy of needs, this is the ultimate level of behavior motivation.

Bibliography

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Behavioral Foundations of Leadership

On this Page

Subject Terms

Behavioral Foundations of Leadership

Levels of Leadership

Attempted Leadership

Successful/Effective Leadership

Styles of Leadership

Traits & Behaviors Common to Successful Leaders

Applications

Understanding the Employee

Motivation

The Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological Needs

Safety Needs

Belongingness Needs

Esteem Needs

Self-Actualization

Other Points of Interest

Conclusion

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading