Ecological systems theory
Ecological Systems Theory (EST), developed by psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner in 1979, posits that human development is significantly influenced by various environmental systems. These systems are conceptualized as five nested layers, each affecting individuals in distinct ways. At the core is the individual, surrounded by the microsystem, which includes direct relationships such as family and friends. The mesosystem connects interactions between different microsystems, highlighting the importance of communication between significant figures like parents and teachers. The exosystem encompasses external factors that indirectly influence the individual, such as community resources and local policies. The macrosystem reflects broader cultural and societal contexts, while the chronosystem considers changes over time in an individual's social interactions and experiences. EST is widely applied in fields such as education and social work to understand how various influences shape individual lives and to identify potential areas for intervention. Over the years, it has evolved into what some refer to as the "Bioecological model," emphasizing dynamic developmental processes influenced by both personal and environmental factors.
Ecological systems theory
Ecological systems theory (EST) is based on the assumption that humans interact with five different environmental systems. Each of these systems affects an individual’s life, relationships within the community, and the relationship between global cultures and communities. Developed in 1979 by psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner, EST has been adopted by scholars working in fields such as social work and education to understand the ways that humans are affected by the environment and how social programs might help humans to overcome hardships.
Background
EST was developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, a Russian American developmental psychologist and professor at Cornell University. Bronfenbrenner published on a wide variety of topics but was perhaps most famous for helping to create the Head Start program in the United States in 1965. This program was based on the theory that a child’s development was determined not only by biology or their parent’s attention, but also outside influences such as poverty. The Head Start program was designed to assist children who were growing up in poor neighborhoods and aimed to ensure that these children would have a better chance at school success. The program provided programs for early childhood learning as well as family support.
Working on the Head Start program helped Bronfenbrenner develop EST. Bronfenbrenner observed that the environment has an impact on an individual’s development and that improvements to the child’s environment could be linked to improvements in the child’s development. This was a radical departure from earlier psychologists who believed that childhood development was determined by biology. This division between biology and the environment is often referred to as the "nature versus nurture debate."
Overview
EST views a person’s environment as comprising five parts, each contained within another. These five parts are often illustrated as a system of concentric, or nested, circles. At the center is an individual who is affected by characteristics such as age, gender, and health—items that are specific to that individual. The first layer is the microsystem. In this circle are those people closest to the individual with whom they interact face to face, such as parents, siblings, fellow students, teachers, and friends. Bronfenbrenner argued that children learn their habits, temperaments, and capabilities at this level. For young children, lessons are learned by observing, experiencing, and participating in interactions with members of their microsystem. The child is also capable of directly influencing others in their microsystem.
The second layer is the mesosystem, where relationships from multiple microsystems connect. For example, a child’s teacher might meet with the child’s parents. This layer is important for analyzing the strength of interactions. If a teacher and parent are in frequent communication, then they can make sure that good habits are practiced at both home and school. However, if the teacher and parent never speak, they might be teaching the child contradictory lessons. According to the ecological systems theory, even contradictions over small things, such as taking shoes off when entering a home, can cause confusion and frustration for a young child.
The third layer is the exosystem. This layer encompasses factors that the child does not cause or affect. This includes the neighborhood, local community, health and social services, business, and mass media. For example, a child who has abusive parents might be removed from the family by protective services. The child did not cause the abuse, but the abuse has an impact on the child and the child’s microsystem. This also applies to more minor things that are beyond a child’s control, such as being expected to participate in new classes at school because a local government has required a change in the curriculum.
The fourth layer is the macrosystem. This consists of the culture, subculture, ethnic group, social class, and religious tradition in which the child lives. This is the broadest layer and can contain many different groups. The macrosystem changes over time, and the child might play a small part in those changes. These changes also affect the child’s values and opportunities in life.
The last, and largest, layer is the chronosystem, a concept Bronfenbrenner articulated in 1986. The chronosystem is the temporal, or time-based, layer, consisting of changes or continuity in the pattern of an individual’s social interactions. For example, the types of friendships, responsibilities, and conflicts that a toddler has are very different than those of a teenager. These differences are partially affected by the child’s biology. For example, a teenager’s brain is better developed than a toddler’s, and as such, a teenager is better able to solve complex problems.
According to EST, environmental changes are also affected by the child’s relationships and their perceived impact on others.
Ecological Systems Theory Today
Bronfenbrenner himself later favored the term "Bioecological model" for his theory, and increasingly shifted his focus to processes of development as experienced across time. Nevertheless, EST has remained a popular and influential concept. It is used by educators, psychologists, public health researchers, and policymakers to determine how best to assist children and young adults. The theory does not present specific ways to resolve a problem but rather a way to determine what might be causing a problem and ensure that all variables in a problem are accounted for. While Bronfenbrenner designed the theory as concentric circles, later theorists have reimagined the theory as having overlapping circles or loosely connected networks between the systems. This more flexible theory helps to adapt to the changing media landscape, such as social media and other interactions over the internet, which Bronfenbrenner could not have imagined when he created the theory.
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