Expectancy-value theory
Expectancy-value theory is a psychological framework that examines how individuals' beliefs and evaluations influence their motivation to engage in specific behaviors. Central to the theory is the idea that motivation is linked to two primary factors: the perceived likelihood of success in completing a task (expectancy) and the value assigned to that task. If a person believes a task is achievable and finds it valuable, they are more likely to be motivated to pursue it. The theory originated from the work of psychologist John William Atkinson in the 1950s and was later expanded by researchers like Martin Fishbein and Jacquelynne Eccles, who explored its application in educational settings and beyond.
In addition to expectancy and value, the theory considers intrinsic, attainment, and utility values that influence motivation, as well as perceived costs associated with taking action. This framework has been applied to various fields, including education, marketing, and healthcare, helping to predict behaviors and tailor interventions. For instance, understanding the beliefs and attitudes of a target audience can inform strategies to encourage healthy behaviors, such as exercise, or discourage harmful ones, like smoking. Over time, the expectancy-value theory has evolved to include the situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which highlights the significance of context in motivation. This comprehensive approach allows for nuanced insights into human behavior, promoting culturally sensitive and effective strategies in diverse settings.
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Expectancy-value theory
The Expectancy-value theory is a psychological concept that posits that a person's motivation for doing something directly corresponds to whether the task is viewed as possible and whether the person is willing to do the task. According to the theory, if the person does not believe the task can be accomplished or the person is not willing to do what will be necessary to complete the task, it is very unlikely that person can be convinced to do the job. This likelihood can be improved, however, by showing the person how and why the task is possible and providing proof of its value. In other words, if the person is convinced there is both a value to the task and expectancy that it can be accomplished, there will be motivation to attempt it.
Background
American psychologist John William Atkinson developed the idea of motivation influencing behavior in the 1950s. Studies conducted by Martin Fishbein, an American social psychologist, later expanded on this work. In the 1970s, Fishbein created a mathematical formula that could be used to determine a person's behavior. The equation took into account the person's attitude toward the object of the behavior (such as a task), the strength of the person's belief that the object was relevant to something else (such as a long-term goal), and the number of beliefs a person holds related to the object of the behavior. Fishbein believed that this formula could determine how likely it was that the person would or would not be motivated to pursue the object. For instance, did a student have enough beliefs to cause them to value education enough to strive for the long-term goal of graduating with good grades to be willing to study for a difficult test (the object)? This formula was the origin of the expectancy-value theory.
Other researchers continued to expand on Fishbein's research in the last two decades of the twentieth century, seeking ways to motivate students to achieve both short-term and long-term learning goals. Jacquelynne Eccles, an American educational psychologist and researcher, was one of a group of psychologists who published their findings on motivating students in the late 1990s. Their efforts began with a study to determine why there were differences in performance and attitude toward math between girls and boys. Their studies showed that students did best when they had confidence in their abilities and were part of a personal and cultural support system that valued education.
The researchers determined that an activity can have intrinsic value, meaning it was valued because it brought enjoyment or it was anticipated it would bring enjoyment in the future. It can also have attainment value; this pertains to the value it is expected to bring in the future, possibly related to a future career or financial success. Tasks can also have utility value, or provide a way of achieving a goal; for example, someone who wants to drive a car must first learn the material for the theory or written test. An additional factor is the perceived cost of the behavior. The cost can affect the behavior in several ways. For instance, fear of bad grades can provide motivation for some students to study, but if a student is likely to be teased because of high grades, this can serve as motivation to not study or do well.
Fishbein later expanded his original concepts that led to the development of the expectancy-value theory. The theory of reasoned action took into account the person's willingness to perform the action. This intention is, in turn, influenced by the person's attitudes toward the behavior in question, the perceived pressure from outside forces (such as peer pressure), and the degree to which the person has a choice in performing the behavior. Together, the expectancy-value theory and the theory of reasoned action have had a significant impact on fields such as psychology, marketing, and communication.
Overview
The expectancy-value theory proposes that what people believe and how they evaluate their options determines what they do. Behavior, the theory says, is a result of what one thinks will happen, or not happen, if they perform the behavior (such as a benefit will be received or a consequence imposed), and how the person evaluates the outcome of the behavior (how positively or negatively the person views the benefit or consequence). Researchers use these factors to predict how a person will react when faced with a choice of behaviors.
The initial studies were primarily conducted in educational settings and intended to help identify what motivates students and ways to increase motivation. Since then, however, the expectancy-value theory has been applied to several additional fields, including public relations, marketing, and healthcare.
For example, if medical professionals want to encourage people to exercise to reduce heart attack risk, they might start by gathering information on the people most likely to benefit from this exercise. They would then need to determine what beliefs this group of people hold toward exercise and their attitude about the activity. It would also be necessary to determine the degree to which the attitudes of people in the group are affected by the potential benefit of exercise (the prospect of a longer, healthier life, for example) and the potential consequences (the possibility of serious illness or premature death) of not exercising. This information can then be used to predict which people in the group will have the most difficulty with adding exercise. It can also help to customize different advertising campaigns and provide several sets of educational materials that support everyone, from the easily motivated to the reluctant.
The theory can also be used to help discourage certain behaviors; for instance, if the target behavior was smoking and the goal was to get people to stop, the researchers might find the things that encourage people to smoke and devise materials to help them avoid these triggers. By understanding the mindset and motivation of the target audience, whether that is students, a group of consumers, or a group of patients, researchers can use the expectancy-value theory to help determine the individuals' likely behavior. With this key understanding, researchers, marketers, and others can then use the information to encourage or discourage behavior, or simply to understand why certain behaviors occur.
The expectancy-value theory has evolved over time, and the situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) emerged. The SEVT emphasizes the importance of situational context in a person’s perception of their ability to complete a task and the value of the task. Additionally, cost beliefs, such as time commitment, negative consequences, and required effort, are increasingly important in the study of expectancy-value theory.
Bibliography
"The Expectancy-Value Theory of Motivation." Teachers Toolbox, www.teacherstoolbox.co.uk/T‗Expectancy-value.html. Accessed 10 Dec. 2024.
"Expectancy Value Theory." Oklahoma University, Apr. 2022, education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf. Accessed 10 Dec. 2024.
"Jacquelynne Eccles." Learning and the Adolescent Mind, learningandtheadolescentmind.org/people‗02.html. Accessed 10 Dec. 2024.
Spott, Jessica L. "Expectancy-Value Theory." Accelerating Systemic Change Network, 6 June 2022, ascnhighered.org/ASCN/change‗theories/collection/evt.html. Accessed 10 Dec. 2024.
Wigfield, Allan, and Jacquelynne S. Eccles. "Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation." Contemporary Educational Psychology, vol. 25, 2000, pp. 68–81, pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0a28/c12a02140983603c7231ebae70564066f86b.pdf. Accessed 10 Dec. 2024.